Child Poverty And Academic Achievement - 1448 Words

Child Poverty and Academic Achievement Francesca Diona University of San Francisco According to the National Center for Children in Poverty, over 16 million children (22%) in the United States live below the federal poverty level, which is $23,550 per year for a family of four. Research has shown that a family requires an income of about twice that amount just to cover basic needs and expenses. Using these statistics, 45% of children in the US live in low-income households. Most parents of low-income children are employed, but unsteady employment accompanied with low wages leave families struggling to make ends meet. The effects of poverty on children are numerous and long lasting, such as impaired learning ability as well as social, behavioral, and emotional difficulties. Childhood poverty can also contribute to poor physical and mental health. Research has shown that poverty is the greatest threat to s child’s well-being, but public policies can make a difference when they are implemented effectively. One of the most obvious and frequently researched consequences of child poverty is low academic achievement. Duncan et al. (1994) concluded that family income and poverty level remain the most powerful determining factors of the cognitive development of children even after many other factors such as family structure and parental education are considered. The same study also found that there was a positive correlation between family incomeShow MoreRelatedRisk Factors Associated With Poverty1541 Words   |  7 Pages Poverty involves a complex array of risk factors that harmfully affects the population in a multitude of ways. The primary risk factors commonly associated with families living in poverty are emotional and social challenges, acute and chronic stressors, cognitive delays, and health related issues (Jensen, 2009). 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Freund Free Essays

Creating Deviance Rules: A Macroscopic Model Author(s): Ronald J. Troyer and Gerald E. Markle Source: The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. We will write a custom essay sample on Freund or any similar topic only for you Order Now 23, No. 2 (Spring, 1982), pp. 157-169 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Sociological Society Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/4106327 Accessed: 16/11/2009 09:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp. JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=black. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor. org. Blackwell Publishing and Midwest Sociological Society are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Sociological Quarterly. http://www. jstor. org The SociologicalQuarterly (Spring1982):157-169 23 Deviance Rules: Creating A Macroscopic Model* RonaldJ. Troyer,Drake University GeraldE. Markle,Western MichiganUniversity In this paperwe proposea macrolevel the modelfor analyzing creationof deviance rules. We begin by placingthe phenomenon withinthe contextof the social factist and social definitionist the sociological traditions, identifying insightsand difficulties the socialproblems We rule creation. sugliterature for deviance presents explaining difficulties be resolvedby lacingthe processwithina can gest that the theoretical The consequent dialecticalmodel of deviance framework. sociologyof knowledge is that society is composedof a numberof designation based on the assumption in of definitions deviance generalinterests varying degreesof conflictwithprevailing outcomes previous of This balanceor accommodation contests. becomes representing vulnerable with the introduction increasein strainwhich is a potentialresource or for inte rest a The groupsdesiring new definition. utcomeof the ensuingconflictis seen as dependent the abilityof the combatants employresources the battle. in on to We concludeby identifying advantages model has for studying deviance the the the rulecreation process. of This is how I treat theory: it is somethingto guide our understanding the social world; it helps us throughthe labyrinthof the buzzingconfusion of conflictingideologies, and, most of all, theory liberatesus from dead facts and worn-out myths. Davis 1980:xv) But since those sociologistswho espouse a strong and explicit determinism,and those who practice the techniquesof â€Å"verstehen,† â€Å"empathy,†and â€Å"takingthe actor’spoint of view,† differ upon so very many issues, technical and otherwise, the present suggestions are more likely to be treated as a pollution of the boundarybetween schools of thought than as a pathway to agreement. (Barnes, 1974:83-84) For decades the sociology of devianc e focused on rule violation. This approach produced works on rule violators, described which rules were violated and how they were violated, and, arguably, why they were violated. Largely neglected in this work was the process by which rules were created; that is, the process by which deviant categories and designations were constructed. Recently scholars have begun to focus attention on this issue, resulting in various empirical case studies or rationales for the import of the collective definition process (Nuehring and Markle, 1974; Conrad, 1975; Pfohl, 1977; Spector and Kitsuse, 1977; Levine, 1978; Schneider, 1978; Markle and Troyer, 1979; Conrad and Schneider, 1980. As with many deviance studies, these efforts have not produced an explicit framework relating rule creation to the broader theoretical conceptions of social processes and the structural order. As a remedy, ? 1982 by The Sociological Quarterly. All rights reserved. 0038-0253/82/1300-0157$00. 75 *The authors thank Roland Chilton, Ronald Kramer, Frances McCrea, Joseph W. Schneider, Malcolm Spector, and Mayer Zald for their helpful comments. Ronald J. Troyer’s address is Department of Sociol ogy, Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa 50311. 158 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY Collins has called for a radicaldeparture deviancestudies,statfrom traditional ing that â€Å"thenext step clearlymustbe to abolishthe field of devianceentirely,to and link its materialswith what is knownof generalexplanations stratification of politics† (1975:17). And Davis (1980:5) has observedthat the time has come â€Å"for the sociology of deviance to move into mainstreamtheory–based sociology. † What theoreticalform ought these investigations take? The developments in sociologicaltheoryin the past few decadeshave been focusedaroundtwo dominant perspectives. The nature of these approachescan best be graspedby referringto Ritzer’s (1975) distinctionbetween the social factist and social definitionist paradigms. The social factist is primarilyconcernedwith the cause of social phenomena; thus the questionasked is a why question. By contrast,since the social definitionist more concernedwith process,the researchquestionis a is how question. In studyingdeviance,for example,the social factistshave focused on behaviordescribing extent and natureasking†Whydo thesepeople do it? † its focusedon the process On the otherhand, the social definitionists have primarily Howhavethesepersons as asking by whichpeoplecometo be defined deviant the label? † acquired deviant have and Webelieve the theoretical of that efforts thefactists thedefinitionists been useful. Such work, though clearly the creationand social constructionof of scholars,is necessaryif the study of rule creationis to lead to generalizations wider applicability. Towar dthat end, we reviewsome relevantliterature, develop creation a sociologyof knowledgeframework, then presenta macrodeviance and model which attemptsto bridge the gap between the factist and definitionist erspectives. Literature between PerhapsArmandMauss has best capturedthe essence of the difference the two majortraditionalapproachesto social problemstheory. The essence of the scholarlydisagreement, noted, came down to one grouparguingthat â€Å"sohe cial problems are ‘objective’realities which generate collective behavior and political action†versus the view that â€Å"socialproblemsare essentiallygenerated by collectivebehaviorand politicalprocesses†(1977:602, emphasisin original). The former closely approximatesthe social factist approach,while the latter the represents social definitionist position. Social factist scholarshave tended to explain social problemsas the product of some environmentally condition. This tradition, disharmonious usuallytermed the strain explanation,has often focused on economic conditions (Oberschall, between differentgoals, differentvalues, 1973) but also includes discrepancies values and norms, knowledgeand actions, technologyand values, and so forth (Smelser, 1962: chap. 3). Smelser,for example,indicatesthat â€Å"norm-oriented movements†(definedas attemptsto restore,protect,modify,or createnormsin the name of a generalizedbelief,† 1962:270) often springfrom the following kindsof strain: Sometimes the appearanceof new knowledge initiates a movement to apply this knowledge in order to eradicate a condition previously taken for granted. (1962: 287) CreatingDeviance Rules 159 can betweennormative and standards actualsocialconditions proAny disharmony videthe basisfor a movement whoseobjective is to modifynorms. 1962:289) it Davis (1975) used a strainmodel to explain changesin the collectivedefinition of deviance. Whileseeingdeviancedefinitions productsof powerstruggles as between groups with new rules representing values of those groups able to the win state endorsement their values, Davis suggeststhat â€Å"the diffusionof new of knowledgeis a majorcause of collective searchesfor new normsin the modern world†(1975:53). Although strain h as been a populartheoreticalapproachfor studyingsome social problems(e. g. race riots), few empiricalstudiesof deviancedesignation have followed from this tradition. PerhapsChamblisscame close in the study of the creation of new rules against vagrancy. In his words, â€Å"The vagrancy statutes emerged as a result of changes in other parts of the social structure† (1964:69). Specifically,the strain was the breakdownof the serf system; vagrancy laws were the responseof the rulingclass to protect their interestsand bring the system back to harmony. Zurcheret al. (1977) have also pointed to the crucial role of strainin the emergenceof antipornography crusades. In the communities amongstatus studied,they found that as a resultof inconsistencies variables,the traditionalmiddle class was experiencingthreatsto its life-style. were attemptsto the Consequently, effortsto gain new rulesagainstpornography bolster the legitimacyof their life-style. In other words, in the strain tradition of new definitionsof devianceare seen as responsesto the introduction various kindsof socialchangein society. Insteadof focusingon the causes of social problems,such as strain(objective traditionstressthat collective acconditions), scholarsin the social definitionist tions emergefrominteraction, processes. As Blumerstated: especiallyinterpretive â€Å"social problemslie in and are productsof a process of collective definition† (1971:301). Spector and Kitsuse (1977) pursuedthis theme with their argument that scholarsmust focus on the claims-making the process to understand emergenceof a social problemor definitionof deviance. This processtraditionhas spawneda varietyof empiricalstudies,often focusdefinitionsof deviance. The ing on the creationof criminaland health-related best known of these studies is Becker’s (1963) analysisof the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Arguingthat there was no majorincreasein the actualuse of the drug, which would be the focus of a strain explanation,Becker attributesthe new rule to the activitiesof a â€Å"moralentrepreneur. † (For other interpretations, see Dickson, 1968; Galliherand Walker, 1977, 1978. ) Other studies have argued that juvenile courts were not created as a responseto increasesin delinquency,as the strainmodel would predict,but ratheras part of a moralcrusade of (Platt, 1969) or as the productof organizational conflictbetweensupporters the police and probationdepartments (Hagan and Leon, 1977). In two studies of sex offensedefinitions,Rose (1977) and Roby (1969) also emphasizeprocessualexplanations. Roby examinedchanges in the New York State penal law on prostitution and found that the relative power of numerous interest groups and individuals determined the final version of the act. Similarly, Rose related the rise of the â€Å"rape problem† to the ideology and organizations generated by the women’s liberation movement. 160 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY of The status politics interpretation the temperancemovementby Gusfield in (1963, 1967) representsanotherone of the majorprocessualapproaches the literature. Basically,Gusfieldsuggeststhat the attemptsto have a behaviordesignated as deviantare often symbolicbattles†betweenopposedsystemsof moralities, culturesand stylesof life† (1963:173). In otherwords,it is not the behavior per se or social conditionswhich cause the attemptto label the behavioras deviant. Instead the designationof deviance must be seen as a productof status of for conflict,the competition the officialassignment honorand prestigethrough of legitimation groupnorms. The creationof new health-related of designations deviancehas been reviewed Conrad and Schneider(1980). These authorshave set forth a â€Å"sequential by of model† and â€Å"grounded on generalizations† the medicalization deviance. Following Spectorand Kitsuse,they emphasizethe import,and not the accuracy,of medicalclaims-making, view claims as strategicdevices, and view medicalization which reflectpolitics and demedicalization devianceas â€Å"cyclicalphenomena† of of the day. In the most recent processualanalysis,Schursuggeststhat deviancemust be seen as a politicalphenomenon. Arguingthat there are at least two sides in any stigmacontest, Schursuggeststhat what is really at stake in deviancedefinitions is the power of the respectivegroups. Since â€Å"power,of any sort, is more like a processthan an object† (1980:8), â€Å"deviancedefiningis not a static event but a continuousand changingprocess†(1980:66). In summary,the literaturereviewed above suggests two models for understandingthe collectivedefinitionof deviance. The process approacharguesthat collectivedefinitionsare the productof interestgroupdynamics. By contrastthe are is for, strainexplanation that societaldisjunctions responsible or at least play a majorrole in, the emergence new definitions. of BeyondDichotomousModels During the past decade, a numberof scholarshave attemptedto move beyond the raditionalstrainor processmodels. For example,Mauss (1975; Maussand of Wolfe, 1977) arguesthat new social problemsor new definitions devianceare best understoodas productsof social movementsled by interestgroups. In this view, social arrangements permit collective behaviorwhich usually focuses on structural strainsbroughtaboutby social change. Thoughmanys trainsare present in society, problem definitionis the product of interest groups organizing social movementswhich push for acceptanceof their definitionof reality. Resource mobilizationtheory is another attemptto move beyond the strain and process models. This framework begins with the assumptionthat society is composedof competinggroups (economic, status, racial,etc. ). Strainis always present,since thereis conflictamonggroupsover whichvalues,norms,economic and arrangements, so forth are to prevailin the society. Group conflictand the of social movementsare analyzedin terms of the abilityof the colemergence lectivities to create and mobilize resources (Oberschall, 1973). A dynamic element is introduced into the analysis: authorities as well as challengers possess resources; deployment by one side requires some kind of response (mobilization of additional resources) from the other side, lest the cause be defaulted. CreatingDeviance Rules 161 Marxistapproaches have also triedto move beyondstrainand processmodels. of Initially Marxist/conflict interpretations new rules defining deviance suggested that they were â€Å"firstand foremosta reflectionof the interestsof the governingclass† (Chambliss,1974:37). In this view â€Å"thestate and legal systemare seen as instruments which can be manipulated,almost at will, by the capitalist class† (Beirne, 1979:379), an approachillustratedby Platt’s (1974) reinterpretation of the establishmentof the juvenile court as a conscious effort by SomeMarxcapitaliststo preserveexistingpoliticaland economicarrangements. ists have assigneda more ambiguous role to the state (Block, 1978), suggesting that it exercises a â€Å"relativeautonomy†in its relationship the capitalistclass to the enactmentof legislationis not alwaysin (Beirne, 1979:379). Consequently, the objectiveinterestsof the capitalistclass, â€Å"but each case must be examined from and empirically on its own merits†(Beirne, 1979:380). Whatis important, this position,is that all of this occurswithinthe boundaries providedby the prevailing structuralrelations. Lauderdaleand Inveraritycriticizedthe early conflict approachesfor inadequately examiningthe politicalprocessunderlyingthe creationof deviance. Arguingthat â€Å"devianceis socially definedand as such is and changedthroughpoliticalprocesses†(1980a:36), they created,maintained, ask underwhat conditionsa form of actioncomes to be definedas deviant(Lauderdale, 1980:v). Noting previousstudiesare characterized a â€Å"preoccupation by with subjectiveinterestsand lack of attentionto measuringobjectiveinterests† (1980b:229), they call for attentionto objectiveconditionsunderlyingthe deviance definitionprocess. These efforts are advancesover analyses which attributenew definitionsof devianceto social psychological processesor to the activitiesof individuals(moral entrepreneurs). Here, at least, an effortis made to locate the deviancewithin the larger social context. However, several issues remainunresolved. First, although recent effortshave attemptedto find a role for objectiveconditions,the remainsunclear. At role of strainin the generation new deviancedesignations of one group of scholars,the social definitionists, suggestobjectivecondipresent tions are largely irrelevant,while others (especially Lauderdaleand Inverarity, to 1980b) are callingfor moreattention objectivefactors. A second majorunresolvedproblemis that none of the collectivedefinitionof deviance approachesexplains why specific behaviorsare selected for deviance silent on this issue. Finally, In categorization. fact, the literatureis remarkably the approachesdiscussedabove do not yet explainwhy some deviancecreation effortsare unsuccessful. is in this contextthat we believe that resourcemobiliIt zation theory could prove valuable in the study of rule creationand deviance designation. Not only does it point toward relevantvariablesfor study, it also to providesan empiricalframework assess previousmovementsand predictthe successor failureof ongoingmovements. Any model or theory of deviance creation must addressthese issues. More into a more genspecifically,a way must be found to subsumethese differences eral model rendering theoreticalissues amenableto empiricalevaluation. Toward a Sociology of Knowledge Given its theoretical import, it seems to us that there have been inexplicably few 162 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY studiesof rule creation. Marxists,subsuming issue withinthe superstructure, the have focusedon the creationof laws whichmaintainruling-class privilege. Strain scholarstreat new rules as responsesto changedsocial conditions(new knowledge, Davis, 1975). Only process scholars have directly addressedthe issue, viewing collective definitionsof devianceas â€Å"emergent productsof an interpretive process† (Hawkins and Tiedman, 1975:340), but studies in this tradition have not produceda rigoroustheoreticalexplanation. Instead, isolated studies have been characterized descriptiveand idiosyncratic detail withoutconnecby or tion to socialstructure generalsocialprocesses. In theirstudyof the medicalization deviance,Conradand Schneider(1980) of a solutionto the interactionist the pose impasse. Although labeling-interactionist of perspectivepresentsus with the questionsto ask concerningthe development deviancedesignations,† they note (1980:20), â€Å"it is a sociologyof knowledgeapproachthat is necessaryto answerthem. â€Å"We thinkof the sociologyof knowledge knowlas a study of the materialbasis of social ideas, categories,designations, and so forth. From this frameworkthe dependentvariablechanges: no edge, longer do we studyth e deviantactor;ratherwe attemptto locate historicallythe origins and the social forces which supportedand opposed the definitionof the deviant category. As Friedsonhas stated, the analysisshouldnot focus on â€Å"the etiology of some state so much as the etiology of the meaningof a state. Thus it asks questionslike: How does a state come to be considereddeviant? How does it come to be considered kindof devianceratherthan another? † one (1970: 215-16). deviant To developtheirknowledgeapproach, Conradand Schneider interpret behaviorsas social constructionsof reality. Adopting Berger and Luckmann’s as (1966) scheme,they view realityconstruction a social processof threestages: The processbegins with the and internalization. xternalization, objectification, of construction a culturalproductor definition a personor collectionof perby becomespartof the generallyacceptedbody sons, continuesas the new definition of knowledge,and concludesas the individualsin publictake the new definition for grantedas partof theirworldview. We applaudConradand Schneider’s explicit sociologyof knowledgeand find their social constructionist approachinsightful. Their analysisof the historical contribution a dimensionsof the medicalization deviancerepresents significant of in by placingdeviancedesignations the broadersocial context. At the sametime, we are uncomfortable with the apparentabsenceof a theoreticalmodel pointing to a more explicit method of data analysis. History is all aroundus; we need the guidanceto separate datafromthe noise. between In his Ideology and Utopia (1936), Karl Mannheimdistinguishes two types of sociologyof knowledge:†on the one hand a theoryand on the other hand an historical-sociological methodof research†(p. 266). As a theorywith the sociology of knowledgehas been pursuedvigepistemologicalimplications, orously. Its methodologicalimplicationshave, however, remainedunderdevelhimselflargelyignoredthe methodological aspectsof knowledge oped. Mannheim theory, though he did write that â€Å"the most important task of the sociology of knowledge at present is to demonstrate its capacity in actual research in the historical-sociological realm† (p. 306). The methodological implications of Mannheim’s work have been pursued most CreatingDeviance Rules 163 rigorouslyby David Bloor in his 1976 book Knowledgeand Social Imagery. Bloor contendsthat our concernshouldbe phenomenological; method,howour scientific. Thesociologistis concernedwith knowlever, ought to be rigorously edge,† he writes, â€Å"purelyas a naturalphenomenon†¦ instead of definingit as true or false belief, knowledgefor the sociologist is whatevermen take to be knowledge†(p. 2). Given that knowledgeis relativeand historicallyunstable, Bloor’s task is to elucidatethe materialbasis of its variation. To accomplishthis in task, he proposesa methodwhich he calls the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge,to wit, that our analysisought to be causal, impartial,and symmetrical. While sociologists would not want to argue that social factors are the sole cause of belief, they should focus on how social conditionsproduceand reflect belief. In demandingan approachwhich is â€Å"impartial with respectto truthand success or failure†(p. 5), Bloor is not advofalsity, rationalityor irrationality, catinga value neutralposition. The task is not to crownwinnersor punishlosers but to understandboth sides. In that sense, Bloor’s sociology is agnostic. Ultito even irrelevant, mate truth,in any sense of the phrase,is seen as peripheral, the analysis. Finally the strong programdemandsa symmetrical analysis. Too often scholarshave attempted analyzedeviantand normalbeliefs from differto ent stances, the former needing special explanation,while the latter–seen as logical, rational,or truthful-are seen to need no specialexplanation. We are interestedin using the sociology of knowledgeas a methodological to guide, as a way of using historicalmaterials build rigorousmodels. In a sense, then, we use Mannheimand Bloor to build a theoreticalmethod for empirical methods,especiallyas it appliesto socialhistory, study. The notion of theoretical has been developedby Stinchcombe(1978; see also Graff, 1980). Good social theory, he asserts,must be groundedin historicaldata. â€Å"Peopledo much better the theory,†he argues,†wheninterpreting historicalsequencethanthey do when they set out to do ‘theory'† (p. 17) and â€Å"thatthe centraloperationfor building theories of history is seeking causally significantanalogiesbetween instances† of Thuswe aremost interested the methodological in implications the sociology of knowledge:as a way of pointingtowardvariables,as a way of using history, as a way-in short-of structuring analysis. Suchan analyticstrategy,as a macroand rigorousversionof groundedtheory,ought to allow us to relateprescopic vious theoriesof devianceand our data in an iterativesort of way and, thus, to build and evaluatea model of how deviantcategoriesare designated. A DialecticalModelof DevianceDesignation In attemptingto addressthe theoreticaland methodologicalissues raised, we propose a dialecticalmodel of deviance designation. The model, presentedin to however,it attempts transcend Figure1, is influenced resourcemobilization; by arany single theory. We begin with the assumptionthat within the structural is composedof a numberof generalinterestsin varying rangements, everysociety degreesof conflict. Such groupsmay be of varyingnature:with inclusiveor exin clusive membership, broad or narrowfocus. Their concernwith the definition (p. 7). Figure 1. A DialecticalModel of DevianceDefiniti General vested other interests Definition i – +- Strain General vested other interests S/ Specific interests CreatingDeviance Rules 165 question,however,is either peripheral,quiescent,or not effectivein the public arena. The initial or prevailingdefinitionof a behavioras acceptableor unacceptable representsthe outcome of previousspecific interestgroup conflict;in other words, the balanceof the resourcesthe two sides were able to mobilize. or This balance or accommodation becomes vulnerablewith the introduction increase of strain. This developmentprovides existing general interest groups with a new resourceand opportunity claims-making. for Specificinterestgroups towardthe specific (includingthe state) form,or mobilize,or becomeredirected issue in question. Faced with a challenge to their interests,groups benefiting from the prevailingdefinitionrespondby marshaling their own resources. The battle of these groups to maintainor change a rule is joined, the outcome dependingon the balance of the mobilizedresources. To speak of the â€Å"balanceof mobilized resources†should not be seen as merely suggestinga simplisticaccountingbalance. Of coursethe matteris muchmore complex. For example,the efficientemployment resources–usingresourcesin an arenawherethey have of maximal impact-may be just as importantas quantity. The net result is that over a periodof time, at time2,the originaldefinitionsurvivesor a new designation takesits place. for In explicatingthe model, we make the following arguments its utility in collectivedefinition deviance: of examining issues raisedin the 1. The model addressesor handlesmanyof the theoretical literature. For example, existing sociological explanations assign central importance to, or ignore, the role of strain. The dialectical model directs the scholar’sattentionto the role of strainbut does not preclude,in fact demands, examinationof other social processes. In addition,by viewing the state as an interestedparty, albeit a group with unique resources,it is possibleto examine official actions without assumingthe existence of an all powerfulmonolithical the definitional outcomes. Furthermore, modelpermitsanalysis entitydetermining and explanationof outcomeswhereneitherside achievestotal victory. in 2. The dialecticalmodel is consistentwith the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge. As Bloor (1976) has requested,this modelis causal,impartial, and symmetrical. Figure 1 is time ordered;that is, variablesappearin causal sequence with one another. Moreoverthese sequences are made explicit, thus data analysis. The model thus allowsfor attemptsat statisticalmodelfacilitating of processvariablesby techniquesdevelopedfrom social factisttraditions. ing The model treats deviance rule creationsas naturalphenomena. Whethera rule is good or bad is irrelevant our analysis. RecallingGusfield’sstudyof the to temperancemovement,the validityof analysiswas independentof truthclaims about alcohol. Whetherthe drug is actuallyan aphrodisiac,a depressant,or a tool of the devil was essentiallyirrelevantto his conclusions. Taking such an it agnosticpositionhas methodological implications: allowsfor the formalmodelvariables. Moreover,Bloor’slast dictum-that analysis ing of phenomenological be symmetrical–hasobvious implicationsfor the dialecticalmodel. Note that interestsfor or againstany definitionare handledin the same way, and have the same causal input into the model. 166 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY 3. The model is dialectical. The theoryis timelessand has no end stage. Figure 1 shows only one referenceframe. But upon acceptanceof â€Å"Definition2,† general vested or other interestsare alreadyin place, advocatingfor or againsta new definition. Though the theory is sequential,in the sense that it goes forwardin remainuntime, the units of time are not specified. Some deviancedesignations for long periods of time, others move more rapidlythroughstages of changed and vindication. Conradand Schneider,thinkingalong the same stigmatization of and demedicalization deviance the lines, have conceptualized medicalization as â€Å"cyclical†(1980:271). We preferto use the termdialectical,in that it leaves ratherthan suggestinga rethe directionof the next redefinition problematic as turnto an originalpoint. nor4. Deviance and normalcyare not distinctcategories. We conceptualize coordinatesystem. As a prescribed as a point in a multidimensional guide malcy for conduct, a rule designatesthe limits of space aroundthe point in which a behavioris seen as deviant. behavioris viewed as normal. Outsidethis boundary, Now we can justify using the terms â€Å"rulecreation†and â€Å"deviancedesignation† more or less synonymously. The formerrefersto the boundaryitself, whichmay be thick or fuzzy; the latter refers to the space outside the boundary. Any behavioralboundary,in our view, is subject to cultural,temporal,or situational between factorswhich continuously defineit, or redefineit. Thus is the boundary deviancy and normalcycontinuouslydrawnand redrawn,and a behavioralresituation,but ratherby definitionoccursnot by quantumleaps, as an â€Å"either-or† or pulled througha system of space. In the dialecticalmodel the being pushed as pushesor pulls aremanifested strainor process. and analyticintentions 5. The model is macroscopic. Our conceptualization the collectivelevel. We do not directlyconsider,for example,the are clearly at motivationsof an individualactor or leader. For two reasonswe down-playthe importof, or perhapseven ignore,such questionsas: Did leaderX makedecision or Y sincerelyor cynically? Is he or she a moralentrepreneur a typical (but not concernedsuburbanite? First,we doubt,in social factistlanguage, authoritarian) that such variablesexplainvery much variancein deviancedesignation. The individual,qua individual,role in collective, historicprocessesis always limited. To Our second reasonis methodological: the extentthat psychologicalvariables are important,how are they to be measuredor assessed? For historicalstudies, motivationseems particularly Secondarysources,as well as various problematic. kinds of documents,seem suspecthere. Even in contemporary settings,people’s of their own or others’motivationsare not trustworthy, especiallygiven reports or the vested or strategicinterestswhich can be served by lying, exaggerating, selectivelyforgetting. Rather,we focus on such variablesas strainand resources over time. and which can be operationalized measuredcomparably 6. The dialecticalmodel uses history. The model invites, perhapseven demands, a given rule to be placed in historical context. Moreover the data needed to test the model are historical, preferably in time series, data. The model is shaped by these data and is thus grounded and inductive as Conrad and Schnei- CreatingDeviance Rules 167 der (1980:265) have suggested. In that sense the dialecticalmodel is meant to evaluate,as much as formallytest, historicalsequencesof data. 7. The model is conflictoriented,though not necessarilyMarxist. Many deviance designations,particularlythose formalizedas laws, are amenableto a Marxist analysis consistentwith the model. Large sums of money or other resources are often used by ruling elites for maintenanceof deviance definitions do or, less often, change. However,some deviancedefinitions not seem to fit the Marxistmodel (see Markle and Troyer, 1979, or Hagan and Leon, 1977, for two such case studies). In the dialecticalmodel, vested or other interests(religious, ethnic, sex, status,etc. ) can militatefor, and indeedbe successfulat, creat(uneming new definitionsof deviance. Similarlystrainmightbe substructural strain ployment,new technology,etc. ), but the model allows for superstructural (e. g. , new knowledge). Using the DialecticalModel As an inductivetheory,the true test of the dialecticalmodel is its utility. Let us and suggesta few ways, then, how the model mightbe operationalized used. We in begin with the concept of strain,which can be operationalized severalways. In our own researchon cigarettesmoking(Markleand Troyer,1979) and estrolegen replacements(McCrea and Markle, 1980), strainwas the appearance, or dissemination new knowledge; strainin our researchon Laetrile of gitimation, (Markle and Petersen, 1980) was, among other factors, an increasedconcern over cancer. As new health-related knowledgeclaims, strain can be measured with variousbibliometric techniques. A simple content analysisof relevantarticles, over a period of years, from Index Medicus can be used to chart such knowledgeclaims. The perceivedlegitimacyof such claims can be assessedby the professionalprestige of the author or journal. Finally, the entry of such knowledgeclaims into the public arena can be measuredusing the New York Times Index, which Jenkins and Perrow (1977) found highly effective,or by one of severalnewspaperdata banks (e. g. , Newsbank)now in existence. After looking at strain,it is easy enoughto identifyspecificinterestsinvolved in redefinition. Such organizations groups will have appearedas recipients, or sponsors,aggrievedparties,etc. , in news accountsor scholarlycitation. The resources of these groups can be measuredin severalways. The Encyclopediaof Associations, updated almost yearly, lists purportedmembershipsand other for simple demographics manysuchgroups. Moreover,most interestgroupshave which are usuallyeasy to obtain, often at literatureor even regularpublications no cost. When interests are corporate,much informationon resourcescan be gleaned from annual reports or, with somewhatmore effort, from regulatory In agenciessuch as the Securitiesand ExchangeCommission. ase studieswhere is an interestedparty, vast amounts of official statistics may be government available (see, e. g. , Markle and Troyer, 1979). Moreover,the researchercan use the Freedomof Information Act to obtain a deep windowinto government actions and resourcesin variousdeviancedesignations. Throughpublic records and other availabledata, every conce pt in the dialecticalmodel can be operationalized. Indeed,to measureresourcesin comparable ways, we have suggested of the development a researchprotocol (Markleand Petersen,1981). 168 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY A Final Word iancearecreated changed, beenneglected socialtheory research. and or in has We believethat neglectcomes from theoretical The misdirection. dialectical thesedifficulties. to model,whichis knowledge based,is ourattempt ameliorate Becauseit attempts integrate traditional the theoryinvites to two approaches, both philosophical- empirical-based and criticisms. Thoughwe welcomethe we The in interested thelatter. realtestof thedialectical former, areparticularly modelis whether works. it Andwhether not it workscan onlybe judged or by it holdingit up to the lightof, and adjudicating with,historicaland contemporary A crucialelementof social change and conflict,why and how definitionsof de- research. REFERENCES Barnes, Barry. 1974. ScientificKnowledgeand SociologicalTheory. London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul. 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Report on International Marketing Management-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss why and how Unilever Bangladesh should standardize or adapt its product (Rexona) in the Chinese Market. Answer: Introduction and Background The battle to balance stewardship and economic growth in the global market environment continues. Over the last decade, China has grown to be an excellent destination for international trade(Philip, et al., 2011, p. 8). New communication strategies have helped most companies go global, and this has increased competition for market internationally. Unilever Bangladesh operates globally in more than 100 countries worldwide. Currently, Unilever delivers more than 400 brands to its markets, China being among them. However, as a consultant of Unilever Bangladesh, there is a need to market the Rexona brand to diversify its market in China given that China has a wider market of consumers (Geppert and Dorrenbacher, 2014, p. 240). Since its inception in 1964, Unilever Bangladesh has attracted a diverse range of customers in the whole globe. International marketing faces numerous challenges, and the company must understand them before launching its newly improved product (Rexona) to the Chines e market (www.unilever.com.bd). There are adverse regulations by the China government, stiff competition from other firms and unpredictable economic downturns just to mention a few(Philip, et al., 2011, p. 400). This report follows two components to achieve the set aims. Foreign market entry is enabled through joint ventures, exporting, franchising, licensing, and turnkey projects. As a consultant of Unilever Bangladesh, franchising will be the primary market entry strategy for the company. The report will examine the policy decision of standardizing the Rexona product in the companys franchise in the context of international product management. The study will also review the benefits possible to occur if the standardizing approach is employed about product management models (Khanna and Palepu, 2010, p. 100). Further, the report will evaluate the benefits of the sales force in marketing Unilever Bangladesh Rexona brand to the Chinese market. An evaluation of the benefits of using sales force in communication mix will also get undertaken. Product Standardization and Adaptation With over 50 years of experience in the market, Unilever Bangladesh (FMCG) connects both directly and indirectly to its consumers. Unilever enjoys a worldwide brand recognition, and this acts as the key driver for success in the Chinese market. In the context of international product development, different policy decisions have been considered by the companys consultant. Why Standardization? Standardization involves the setting of same attributes for a particular product, in this case, Rexona. Over the past decade, the debate on whether to adapt or standardize a new product has received significant attention in international marketing (Lee and Lieberman, 2010, p. 150). Standardization is used due to various reasons as explained below: Leads to Production economies: The standardization of Rexona brand by Unilever would result to better planning and control, improved economies of scale, and proper utilization of the sales workforce at the company in its global market being exploited. Reduction of production costs: The entry into the foreign market (Chinese market) by Unilever significantly reduces the company's production costs due to franchising and the use of joint ventures with other firms. Standardization of the Rexona product would help Unilever lower the cost of production hence increasing profitability (De Mooij, 2013, p. 24). Smooth performance monitoring: Expanding the newly Rexona brand that is standardized regarding quality and price by Unilever to the Chinese market would assist in lowering the unit design expenditures hence gaining a competitive edge over the rivals in the international marketing (Navarro et al., 2010, p. 155). In this report, the decision of whether to use standardization or adaptation strategy is influenced by the external (China) market environment. Different issues such as political, economic, cultural, and social impacts on different markets, hence the strategy to adopt by Unilever at the Chinese market. The management of Unilever Bangladesh needs to adopt the standardization strategy in selling its Rexona brand in China. Impact of PESTEL on Unilever Political-legal environment Unilever has established strategies of tackling the potential political and legal issues in the Chinese market. There are legislations by the government that govern business operations in the Chinese market (Yuksel, 2012, p. 52). The company has enhanced prices control land expatriates employment in a manner that complies with China policies. Economic environment Unilevers marketing operations to China depends on Chinas economy. The success of the company in the marketing of Rexona will depend on the economic growth and stability in the country. Further, the rise of peoples wages in China presents an excellent opportunity for Unilever to make more sales hence profitability (Yuksel, 2012, p. 52). Social environment Sociocultural trends impact on Unilevers marketing strategies in the Chinese market. Unilever needs to modify the Rexona before marketing it in the market to ensure that the brand addresses consumer's interests and demands and that it is not against the Chinese culture, beliefs, and norms. Technological environment The success of an MNC depends on the type of technology used in marketing their products to the target market. The rising business automation in the world requires Unilever to use e-commerce in doing its business. Marketing Rexona over the companys website offers the right opportunity for the company to enter the Chinese market (Yuksel, 2012, p. 52). Ecological Environment Ecological trends have an influence on Unilevers remote environment at China. The effects of the natural environment affect the marketing strategies of the company. The increase in environmental programs complexities in China require Unilever to be socially responsible to attract a wider market. Unilever Bangladesh's food and personal care product success in the global market is substantially associated with the standardization strategy used by the management when selling a new product internationally(Philip, et al., 2011, p. 166). Given that consumers in the market demand adjusted and high quality products, Unilever should ensure a sustained standardization of its Rexona brand that is getting marketed to the China market to suit the consumer culture. Why Adaptation? The adaptation strategy refers to the marketing strategy where a company modifies new products. Most multinational corporations (MNCs) adapt their marketing strategies when going global, even at the international arena where diverse brands of goods are universally prevalent (Moore et al., 2010, p. 161). For example, Unilever markets home care products, fast foods, water purifiers, and personal care products. However, this report focuses on Unilevers marketing strategy to win the Chinese market for its newly modified Rexona. Unilever's adaptation decisions when entering the Chinese market would influence its competitive position and performance over its rivals. Some researchers postulate that adaptation approach is more efficient since consumers vary across cultural differences. For instance, China is a country whose cultural diversity is vast. In the choice of export market variables by the management of the company, the market similarity between Bangladesh and China needs priority. The proper planning and firm Rexona adaptation in the Chinese market add strength to its export performance. Porters Five Forces Competitive rivalry Unilever faces stiff competition from Procter Gamble and McDonalds among other players in the industry. In marketing Rexona at China, Unilever should use aggressive price cuts and marketing campaigns to attract more customers. Supplier power As an MNC, Unilever has various suppliers for its raw materials that manufacture Rexona. The company needs to understand market demand in China and choose that supplier who can offer the right quality. Choosing the right supplier helps in delivering the preferred brand quality in the market (Porter, 2008, p. 33). Buyer power Maintaining the Rexona quality is the key determinant of customer attraction and retention by Unilever in China. The company should target reliable and loyal customers whose purchasing power is unquestionable. Unilever's ability to supply Rexona in the market depends on the number of buyers (Porter, 2008, p. 40). Threat of substitution The likelihood of customers finding an alternative company or product would determine the rate of success for Unilever in marketing Rexona to China. However, the marketing of unique and favorable offers by the company automates success, and this hinders people from outsourcing or finding another dealer. Threat of new entry Unilevers position in the Chinese market depends on other MNCs ability to enter the market. Entry of new companies in the market is a threat to Unilevers Rexona brand, hence the company needs to improve and standardize its product feautures in a manner that attracts the target market (Porter, 2008, p. 28). Benefits of Standardization compared to adapting approach Entering the Chinese market with new marketing strategies will help Unilever maximize its profitability. The decision to standardize the Rexona brand by Unilever will offer the company benefits which could not arise given the adaptation approach is preferred. The potential benefits include: Standardization of the Rexona brand would provide Unilever significant cost advantages such as reduced production costs and increased economies of production. The standardization approach allows for the consistent presentation of brand image worldwide hence attracting choice from many customers in the targetted country as compared to the adaptation approach. Unlike adaptation strategy, using standardization strategy to enter global market enables a firm employ similar advertisement techniques, packages, and presentations hence reducing operations costs. The adoption of standardization approach would help Unilever Bangladesh develop unique global marketing strategies that suit the Chinese market. The Rexona Unilever brand image is associated with diversity, dynamism, and active global lifestyle. The decision by Unilever to use adaptation approach in marketing this product might negatively compromise its identity in the Chinese market. High speed is guaranteed in the implementation of standardization strategy by Unilever since the marketing mix is already known to the marketing sales force of the company. How to Standardize or Adapt? Examination of the standardizing and adapting approach Product standardization across different markets has become a significant issue for managers going global to consider. In 2015, Unilever secured a partnership agreement with the Chinese government that enhanced its collaborative marketing strategies of its new products in the market (Schilke et al., 2009, p. 30). This gives Unilever an edge to thrive in the Chinese market given that the Chinese consumers know its products. The knowing of the quality and the price of Rexona products by consumers necessitates the standardization of the newly modified Rexona in an approach to international marketing. On the other hand, product adaptation approach is increasingly becoming an important factor that marketing managers of global companies consider. Perhaps, product adaptation significantly influences multinational corporations foreign market entry marketing programs. Unilever is an MNC, and international marketing is required in an endeavor to aid market penetration of the newly modified Rexona in the Chinese market. While past research argues that standardization enhances performance in the market, today's research recommends a combination of the two strategies. However, the combination of the two options will be costly to Unilever and hence impossible. Therefore, Unilever Bangladesh needs to consider using standardization approach other than adaptation strategy. This is because standardization is a cheaper plan whose marketing fits all cultures in the market. Further, standardization will offer the company large economies of scale in the market. Standardizing the companys marketing mix and strategy would also help the company save marketing costs in promoting the product to the global arena. Further, the firm would have more competitive prices and high quality product brands that suit both the local and worldwide consumer demands. International product management model Unilever Bangladesh's success in marketing the Rexona brand depends on the skills and innovativeness of the product manager. The advanced technology has made international marketing challenging, complex, and competitive. Unilever should adopt an excellent product management model to enhance competitiveness and sustainability in its Chinese market entry plan. The international product management model to get used by Unilever is: Blackblot product management team model Unilever should train its sales force on strategies of implementing marketing plans. The company should focus on the technological challenges that affect their operations and hinder their success in marketing their product to other foreign markets. Blackblots model will help in transforming product modification and enhance Rexona acceptance in China. International product management principals The marketing of Rexona by Unilever in China will be based on the following product management principals: Understanding the target market: The marketing managers of Unilever must understand the market demands and needs before delivering the Rexona brand in the market. Educate consumers on the product use: Through company websites, it is the responsibility of a product manager of Unilever to inform customers on how to use the product. Making it easy for consumers to use the product grants customers loyalty. Sales Force within Marketing Communication Mix Marketing personnel plays a critical role in the marketing communication mix of a company. While international marketing is a significant trend in the modern business world, the right sales force determines the rate of success that a company would have in its foreign market entry strategies. Why is Sales Force Key? MNCs rely on the sales force in their endeavor to go global (Terpstra et al., 2012, p. 45). There is need to support the sales force by giving them sufficient and appropriate resources to market the companys Rexona in the Chinese market. The different sales force has different talents, skills, and abilities to persuade new markets. For example, the introduction of finger-licking good fare by KFC to China was facilitated by its sales force, and this slogan excited the Chinese consumers. In this regard, there are potential underlying benefits of valuing sales force within the marketing mix of Unilever as discussed below: Potential Benefits of Sales Force in International Markets The global marketplace requires highly innovative and creative sales force to explore. Realizing the marketing success by Unilever Bangladesh is determined by the ability and quality of its sales personnel. The sales force needs to understand different cultures and language for the Chinese customers to persuade them easily to buy Unilevers Rexona product (Chung et al., 2012, p. 80). The potential benefits for Unilever from its sales force in entering the Chinese market include: Sales force lead conversions in the foreign markets: The use of Salesforce by Unilever when selling its modified Rexona brand to China would help in bridging the gap between the consumer demands and the quality of product that meets customer needs. Salesforce would help Unilever advertise the Rexona product to the Chinese market and assist in building on the current awareness that the customers have on the product in the market. Potential business growth: Sales force would assist the company to build customers loyalty to the product getting marketed in the market (Rexona). Consumer loyalty and trust on the companys product would help in increasing sales hence strengthening its position in the Chinese market. There is a potential for the trustworthy customers to recommend Unilever to their colleagues through the online webs and business cards offered to them by the sales force. Customer attraction and retention: Personal selling by the sales force of the company plays a critical role in building a brand reputation to the market. Excellent sales personnel of Unilever creates a long lasting impression on the consumer and hence attracting new customers in the Chinese market (Klug, 2006, p. 10). Provided the sales force of the firm offer after sales services to their consumers when they purchase the Rexona brand, this has a potential impact on customer retention and reduces consumer complaints. Product development and features improvement: Sales force, directly and indirectly, impacts on the development of the product (Rexona) features. The interaction of salespeople with the Chinese customers gives them a chance to collect information regarding the modified product. As a result, the sales personnel take these recommendations to the marketing manager of the company which in turn helps Unilever understand the market demand and offer the right standardized product as required by the consumer (Johnston and Marshall, 2016, p. 88). Potential Benefits of Sales Force in Marketing Communication Mix The marketing communication mix involves the product, price, promotion, and the place combination. When entering international markets, most companies use the components of marketing and communication mix (promotional mix). Unilever's attempt to enter the Chinese market in the commercialization of its Rexona brand requires the use of advertising, public relations, personal selling, and sales promotions. Brand positioning in the international marketing requires proper understanding of the target audience by the company (Jackson and Sorensen, 2015, p. 99). Unilever must involve the 4P's i.e. product, price, place, and promotion when marketing the Rexona product in the Chinese market. However, the last P of the marketing mix- Promotion requires proper coordination and right sales force to connect to the targeted market effectively (Hutt and Speh, 2005, p. 68). The use of the marketing and communication mix when marketing its Rexona products in the global market gives Unilever potential benefits of growth as discussed in every mix below: Sales promotion: The primary role of the sales force in a company is sales promotion. The sales people of Unilever should make the use of premiums, contests, and coupons in the China market and this offers the company potential to attract attention, dramatize offers, stimulate consumer response, provide excellent buying incentives, and boost sagging sales (Ernst et al., 2010, p. 90). The use of sales people in sales promotion is relevant to Unilever when entering the market. With licensing to operate in China, the company has a potential to enhance Rexona brand preferences in the market hence gain a competitive edge. Public relations: The exporting and foreign direct investment (FDI) foreign market entry strategies require public relations back up for a company to thrive in the Chinese market. Sales persons ability to relate well with the target audience will offer the business highly credible and believable sales for its brand. Using sales force would assist Unilever to reach many prospects via other promotional forms at a cheaper expense (De Mooij, 2010, p. 80). Further, public relations offers the sales people many ways of exploiting the newly identified China market through the review of new product features, global news stories on the brand, and sponsorship events. Direct marketing: The use of highly skilled and talented sales force by the company will help Unilever undertake online marketing of Rexona, direct emailing to the acquired clients, and in conducting telephone marketing. Sales forces have the ability to understand customers mood through their interactions experienced in other global markets. Whenever this is a challenge to the company, there is an opportunity to consider sending messages to retailers with special orders (Buckley and Casson, 2010, p. 150). Online and print surveys undertaken by the sales force helps the company in understanding market trends. How is Sales Force Management Key? Foreign market entry requires proper sales force management by the company. The sales force is the most important asset in an organization in its attempt to sell a new product in a foreign market. Sales personnel research and innovate new marketing techniques that help a company enter and thrive in the international market (Terpstra et al., 2012, p. 44). In particular, Unilever's success in entering the Chinese market depends on the firm's ability to manage its sales people. Unilever is focused on managing the talents, culture, skills, and behaviors of its sales force. The first stage of foreign market entry is marketing the product, and this is the key role for sales force in the firm (Craig and Douglas, 2005, p. 100). There is a potential return on investment from the efforts employed by the sales personnel in marketing the Rexona brand to the Chinese market. This necessitates the company to offer a conducive environment and adequate resources to the sales people to enable them to win more markets. The proper sales force management by the company improves their morale and commitment to market the Rexona product in the market. Sales people have a direct relationship with the target audience, and this offers them a perfect opportunity to understand what the market demands before embarking on the venture (Blocker et al., 2012, p. 20). Sales people play a critical role in setting the price for the product since they are the ones distributing samples to the consumers. Unilever must understand that sales people help in optimizing product distribution to the Chinese market and that valuing their input ideas contributes directly to the diversified market and product acceptance in the market. Sales force implementation plan For the sales force to be effective, a well detailted plan of how it will be implemented should be provided. The first step should be planning the integration. This will be possible by definining the objectives that need to be achieved. Recruiting the best person to lead this task force and outlining the tasks tp be performed by the sales force will help in having effective sales force (Mantrala , Raman, 2013). Educating the team will be next step. In this step, the manager should dedicate his/her time on educating the team on what need to be done so as to perform their duties well. The vision and objectives of the team should also be well communicated. The manager also needs to train the sales force so that they can gain all the skills needed for perforance of their tasks. The third step of the implementaion plan should be preparing the data. The manager should clean the data and ensure it is up to date to avoid facing obstacles that related to data that may hinder them from fulfilling their tasks. Determine which data to be to be given to the task force so as to ensure delicate and confidential data is not given to the wrong personell (Johnston, Marshall, 2016). The fourth step will involve transfering data. In this case data will be transferd from the previous marketing platform to the new marketing platform which is sales force. This will involve preparing reports of the movement of the data. It will also involve evaluating the setting to ensure that the data is well configured so as to ensure its security. Tracking the progress of the plan will be the fifth step. In this step, the manager wants to ensure that every activity is happening according to the plan. This stage requires alot of feedback from the involved stakeholders. The sixth and last step will be to update and communicate to the to the task force( Buttle, Ang, Iriana, 2010). From the feedback provided in the previous step, the sales force team should be updated on what changes need to be done. This will help to correct the deviations encountered so that the plan can work well and achieve the desired goals and objectives. Conclusion The main aim of this report was investigating the extent over which multinational corporations (MNCs) standardize or adapt a product brand when going global. The study selected Unilever Bangladeshs (FMCG) Rexona product to advise the company on why and how to market the modified brand to the Chinese market. In order to fulfill the objectives of the report, the extent of which Unilever can adapt or standardize its Rexona brand, and the importance of sales force in the marketing of the product at the global market has been discussed. The study concludes that Unilever should standardize its product when marketing it internationally, in particular to China given its immense benefits, unlike the adaption strategy. Further, the report concludes that Unilever should value the input of its sales force when marketing the new product in the international market since this plays a critical role in product success and sales growth in the global market. Bibliography Buttle, F., Ang, L., Iriana, R. (2006). Sales force automation: review, critique, research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 8(4), 213-231. Blocker, C.P., Cannon, J.P., Panagopoulos, N.G. and Sager, J.K., 2012. The role of the sales force in value creation and appropriation: New directions for research.Journal of Personal Selling Sales Management,32(1), pp.15-27. Buckley, P.J., and Casson, M., 2010. Models of the multinational enterprise. In The Multinational Enterprise Revisited(pp. 147-176). Palgrave Macmillan UK. Chung, H.F., Lu Wang, C. and Huang, P.H., 2012. A contingency approach to international marketing strategy and decision-making structure among exporting firms.International Marketing Review,29(1), pp.54-87. Craig, C.S. and Douglas, S.P., 2005.International marketing research. Chichester: John Wiley Sons. De Mooij, M., 2010.Consumer behavior and culture: Consequences for global marketing and advertising. Sage. De Mooij, M., 2013.Global marketing and advertising: Understanding cultural paradoxes. Sage Publications. Ernst, H., Hoyer, W.D., and Rbsaamen, C., 2010. Sales, marketing, and research-and-development cooperation across new product development stages: implications for success. Journal of Marketing,74(5), pp.80-92. Filipe Lages, L., Lus Abrantes, J. and Raquel Lages, C., 2008. The STRATADAPT scale: A measure of marketing strategy adaptation to international business markets.International Marketing Review,25(5), pp.584-600. Geppert, M. and Dorrenbacher, C., 2014. Politics and power within multinational corporations: Mainstream studies, emerging critical approaches and suggestions for future research.International Journal of Management Reviews,16(2), pp.226-244. Griffith, D.A., 2010. Understanding multi-level institutional convergence effects on international market segments and global marketing strategy.Journal of World Business,45(1), pp.59-67. Hutt, M.D. and Speh, T.W., 2005. Edition: Business Marketing Management.South-Western Publishing Company. Jackson, R. and Sorensen, G., 2015.Introduction to international relations: theories and approaches. Oxford university press. Johnston, M.W., and Marshall, G.W., 2016. Sales force management: Leadership, innovation, technology. Routledge. Khanna, T. and Palepu, K.G., 2010.Winning in emerging markets: A road map for strategy and execution. Harvard Business Press. Klug, A., 2006.Theories of international trade. Routledge. Lee, G.K. and Lieberman, M.B., 2010. Acquisition vs. internal development as modes of market entry.Strategic Management Journal,31(2), pp.140-158. Mantrala, L. K., Raman, K. (1990). Analysis of a sales force incentive plan for accurate sales forecasting and performance. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 7(2-3), 189-202. Meissner, H.G., 2012.Strategic international marketing. Springer Science Business Media. Moore, C.M., Doherty, A.M. and Doyle, S.A., 2010. Flagship stores as a market entry method: the perspective of luxury fashion retailing.European Journal of Marketing,44(1/2), pp.139-161. Navarro, A., Losada, F., Ruzo, E. and Dez, J.A., 2010. Implications of perceived competitive advantages, adaptation of marketing tactics and export commitment on export performance.Journal of world business,45(1), pp.49-58. Philip, C. R., Mary, G. C. John, G. L., 2011. International Marketing. 15th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Porter, M.E., 2008. The five competitive forces that shape strategy.Harvard business review,86(1), pp.25-40. Schilke, O., Reimann, M., and Thomas, J.S., 2009. When does international marketing standardization matter to firm performance?. Journal of International Marketing,17(4), pp.24-46. Shoham, A., Brencic, M.M., Virant, V., and Ruvio, A., 2008. International standardization of channel management and its behavioral and performance outcomes. Journal of International Marketing,16(2), pp.120-151. Terpstra, V., Foley, J. and Sarathy, R., 2012.International marketing. Naper Press. www.unilever.com.bd Yksel, ?., 2012. Developing a multi-criteria decision making model for PESTEL analysis.International Journal of Business and Management,7(24), p.52

Huck Finn Themes free essay sample

Huck Finn Essays In the book Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain deals with three different themes throughout the story. He uses these themes to show you the growth and development not only in a young boy in but also society as a whole. The themes shown all through this book include: conflict between society and individuals, Huck’s death and rebirth, and loneliness and isolation. Conflict between society and individuals, was something that could be found anywhere in this story. One situation that comes to the mind right away is the way that everyone looked upon the African Americans as a whole. At the beginning of this story Huck and Tom Sawyer decided to play a trick on Jim, (who happens to be a slave) and use Jim’s strong belief in superstitions against him. They decided to tie him up and tell him that witches came, all the while both children are laughing at what they had done to this â€Å"stupid† slave. We will write a custom essay sample on Huck Finn Themes or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Another thing that comes to my mind is just the fact that Huck had to lie everywhere they went in order for Jim not to be taken away and sent back to Miss Watson. Even until the end Huck was lying to society to keep Jim with him and get him to freedom. Those two examples, best illustrate the conflict between society and individuals in this story. The death and rebirth of Huck is another theme that is shown in this book. Through the entire book Huck grows not only physically but mentally as well. I think the death that Twain was showing was in the beginning of the story when Huck seemed to be so unhappy and things only got worse for him. After being unhappy but grateful for Miss Watson and Widow Douglas, Huck is taken away and goes to live with his father. The way that his father treated him when they were together was horrible and Huck might have been better off dead. I think that is where Huck died on the inside, he lost hope of ever getting away for his Pap. I think his rebirth was when he was on his journey, the minute he got away was when his rebirth began. On this trip he would not only learn to fend for himself but also, he would become a new person completely. Huck’s death and rebirth was an important theme in this book. Loneliness and isolation is the third theme of this book, and one in which I feel is hard to find inner mix in the story. The loneliness I feel that is shown in this book would be Huck’s overall feeling about live. His father was a drunk and he had to be taken in by a new family. I think that when Huck is with his Pap in the cabin is when the loneliness is the strongest for Huck. Day in and day out he was left all alone and locked in a cabin, and sometimes he was locked up for days, only to find his Pap would come home drunk and usually became abusive to his son. Isolation I think is a little bit harder to find in this book, I guess the one situation that sticks out most in my mind right now would be all the times when Jim was left by himself, waiting for Huck to come back. I think that, even though it was never really said, that Jim had to have felt isolated by his color. Because of this he would have to stay behind on their raft, while Huck went out into the towns. There is no doubt in my mind that he didn’t feel this isolation and wish he could change it or do something about it. Although not as strong of a theme as the first two, I still can see this theme in Huckleberry Finn. After reading this book I feel that Mark Twain was concerned with these issues because they were important issues of the time of this book. The isolation, and conflict that there was for blacks, I think was big deal to Twain, not only because they were important at the time, but because it was something that was not right and should have never taken place. I think he wants us to see the wrong in doing such things in hopes that we can change what will happen in the future and not to have history repeat itself. I think that Huck’s death and rebirth is important because he was showing how Huck changed his views on life and the people around him for the better. I think that the loneliness also ties in with isolation and conflict because it was also something that was felt by most blacks and once again was something that should not have taken place. This is why I feel that Mark Twain chose these themes for his book. Overall I think that Twain, showed his themes throughout this book wonderfully. He got his point across and somehow ended up with a great adventure story.

Sample College Essay Responses

Sample College Essay ResponsesSample college essay responses are always a wonderful way to show off your academic skills. The best thing about a sample is that it can be easily used as a template for future essays or even just for practice. One of the things that you want to make sure that you include in your sample college essay responses is that they are positive. Making them positive, and not just factual, will help you in your writing by having a clearer focus on the topic.This also allows you to highlight your own strengths as well as your own weaknesses when writing your sample college essay responses. When you are writing an essay for college, it is critical that you write about yourself. It is essential that you make sure that you have included information about yourself that could really help to relate to the situation you are addressing. Keep in mind that there is nothing more embarrassing than giving a speech at a job interview and not mentioning any job skills that you ha ve been able to develop over the years.Another way that you can include information about yourself in your sample college essay responses is to include testimonials. This will help you to emphasize your ability to interact with others and to be of help to those around you. An example of this could be how you dealt with difficult situations and how you were able to overcome them. You can even include examples of the things that you have learned and be able to pass along to others. Testimonials can be as valuable as a sample essay in creating a clear outline for your future essay.For students who want to go into writing for the newspaper, magazines, and even online publications, they should consider including sample college essay responses in their portfolios. They are much more likely to be hired if they include samples of their work in addition to their full-length published work. If you are going to use samples in your portfolio, then they will be more likely to be called back for interviews.You might also want to include samples in your portfolio in order to get your resume to stand out from all of the other applicants. You will want to emphasize your ability to deliver your own unique perspective on the topic that you are writing for in the essay that you are submitting. The writer's perspective should always be focused on you, because you are the one with the greatest chance of being successful. By using samples in your portfolio, you will be able to show potential employers how well you will be able to communicate your own ideas in an informative manner.Lastly, and most importantly, you want to include samples in your sample college essay responses that will show what you can do to help the college in which you want to apply. Whether it is in the areas of sports, social activities, volunteering, or even helping in the development of the college campus, you want to include your own ideas about how you can best help others. This will help the college not on ly recognize your personal talents but also boost your confidence when you are interviewing for a job. Just because you were a great student in high school does not mean that you are not capable of applying the same hard work that you did when you were in high school into your work for the college.So, by including samples in your college essay responses, you will be able to show your students that you are smart and able to contribute to a high-performing college. As an undergraduate, you want to show your potential to be an excellent student and an exceptional teacher. There is no better way to be sure that you are showing all of these things than by providing samples that demonstrate your own expertise.

Famous Artists Who Moonlight As Ghostwriters - The Writers For Hire

FAMOUS ARTISTS WHO MOONLIGHT AS GHOSTWRITERS It’s no secret that there’s a ton of money in the music industry. In fact, just last year two musicians (Jay-Z and Diddy) made in onto the Forbes Top 10 Wealthiest Celebrities list. It takes a lot of hard work (and luck) to get even close to that kind of success, though. And just like with any profession, most musicians spend years paying their dues and working their way up before they finally get noticed. And for many musicians, â€Å"paying their dues† means letting other people take credit for their work by being ghostwriters. Yes, even musicians use ghostwriters! While it is a fairly well-known fact that a lot of famous musicians don’t actually write their own songs, it may surprise you how many of those songs are actually written by other (sometimes equally well-known) musicians. Take Kelly Clarkson’s massive hit, â€Å"Miss Independent,† for example. It was actually written by none-other than the insanely talented Christina Aguilera. And before Bruno Mars became a household name, he was ghostwriting hits for Ceelo Green and Flo Rida, among others. In fact, some of the most well-known songs of all time were actually written by ghostwriters, and not the artists who made them famous. While on my quest to find ghostwritten songs, I came across quite a few big surprises. For example: Aretha Franklin’s â€Å"Respect† was actually written by the famously soulful RB artists, Otis Redding.While the hit â€Å"Nothing Compares 2 U† conjures up memories of Sinead O’Connor’s heart-wrenching rendition, it was actually written by one of the most recognizable and talented artists of all time: Prince!The 1966 number one hit â€Å"I’m a Believer,† made famous by The Monkees, was written for the band by Neil Diamond.Justin Beiber’s well-known â€Å"Love Yourself† was written by another very famous artist: Ed Sheeran.â€Å"Whataya Want From Me?†, which is arguably the most popular song from artist Adam Lambert, was actually written by Pink.â€Å"Halo† may be one of Beyonce’s most famous songs, but it was actually written by Ryan Tedder, lead singer of the band One Republic.â€Å"It’s Raining Men† made famous by The Weather Girls was surprisingly written by Paul Shaffer, the leader of The David Letterman Show’s band. Big hit songs are not the only things that are ghostwritten by musicians, though. Before they got their big break, several well-known musicians got their start by ghostwriting advertising jingles. I would be shocked to find a person who is not familiar with State Farm’s â€Å"Like a Good Neighbor† jingle, or the catchy â€Å"Stuck on Band-Aid† tune. But, did you know that they were both written by Barry Manilow? Manilow’s jingle portfolio also includes tunes for Pepsi, Kentucky Fried Chicken, and Stridex, among others. Barry Manilow is not the only mega-musician to write commercial songs, though. It’s a pretty fair statement to say that basketball fans everywhere would recognize the tune of â€Å"Roundball Rock,† also known as the â€Å"NBA on NBC Theme.† But who would have guessed that the song was written by soft-pop overlord, John Tesh? And although Randy Newman may not be a well-known name, his Pixar contribution of â€Å"You’ve Got a Friend in Me† from Toy Story is sure to ring a bell. A little known fact about Newman, though, is that he also wrote Dr. Pepper’s â€Å"Most Original Softdrink Ever† jingle.

Investigation into theme park rides from a scientific viewpoint Essay Example

Investigation into theme park rides from a scientific viewpoint Essay Example Investigation into theme park rides from a scientific viewpoint Essay Investigation into theme park rides from a scientific viewpoint Essay In this essay investigation will be made into the forces that are acting on the human body when experiencing a theme park ride. Theme park rides have developed considerably within the last twenty years, it is not only the physics of the ride that needs to be considered during the design process but safety aspects also need to be considered, tests need to be taken to find what conditions such as G-forces, speeds and pressure can be withstood by the body. This investigation will be studying the velocity and breaking force of the ride known as The Detonator. Gravitational force, potential energy and kinetic energy all play a role in the experience of the ride and in the right environment can create a situation where the body is in freefall. The Detonator is a ride where passengers are strapped into a car at the bottom of a 30.78m tower, motors apply a force to raise the car to the top of the free-fall tower (this force differs depending on the mass of the riders) when the car arrives at the top of the tower it is suspended; this is the point at which the potential energy is the greatest, the car is then released and the potential energy is transferred into kinetic energy. The Detonator The following points will be investigated: o Velocity o Breaking Force o The relationship free-fall has with other aspects of physics This report will not however be investigating into rollercoaster loops or centripetal force as these do not apply to The Detonator and are too advanced for this piece of writing. Measurements Initial velocity- u Final velocity- v Displacement- s Acceleration- a Mass- m Gravitational force- g Time- t For this report average measurements are used as follows: (All measurements shown to 2 d.p.) Masses- o Child/young adult- 35.00kg o Adult- 65.00kg o Large adult- 90.00kg In an 8:3:1 ratio Mass of car- 10000kg Height of free-fall tower-30.78m Braking distance- 9.32m Calculations All working will be shown in full as an aid to appreciating the full physics of the ride. Due to the ride being in a free-fall situation the acceleration downwards is therefore equal to the gravitational force-9.81ms-2 Initial velocity- 0.00ms-1 Final velocity- v2=u2+2as v2=02+2 X 9.81 X 30.77 v=?603.7074 =24.57045787 24.57ms-1 Breaking Force- The detonator car holds 12 riders at one time. When studying the ride it was noticeable that the average rider ratio is 8 Children:3 Adults:1 Large Adult. I will calculate the braking force for a car full of large adults, a car full of adults and a car full of children. I will then work out what the average braking force would be using the average user ratio. The formula F=ma will be used to find the braking distance, however we do not yet know the acceleration so this will need 2 be found Firstly the acceleration needs to be found, using the following formula: Acceleration- v2=u2+2as a=v2- u2 2s a= 24.570457872 -02 29.23 a= 603.7074 18.46 =32.7035428 a= 32.70 ms-2 Breaking force-(12 children) F=ma F=(1235.00+10000) X 32.7035428 F=10420 X 32.7035428 340770.916 F=340770.92N Breaking force-(12 adults) F=ma F=(1265+10000) X 32.7035428 F=10780 X 32.7035428 =352544.1914 F=352544.19N Breaking force-(12 Large adults) F=ma F=(1290+10000) X 32.7035428 F=11080 X 32.7035428 =362355.2542 F=362355.25N Breaking force-(8 Children:3 Adults:1 Large Adult- Average) F=ma F=(835+365+190+10000) X 32.7035428 F=(280+195+90+10000) X 32.7035428 F=10565 X 32.7035428 =34551.9297 F=34551.93N These calculations are based on the forces used being the only forces acting therefore they may not be as accurate as is possible. To create the most accurate results other forces such as friction will need to be considered. Evaluation The physics used in the theory for The detonator closely relates to that of a falling lift in a tall building -the initial velocity being negative, zero or low and the final velocity being very high and the coming to an abrupt halt, breaking force being the mass of the lift plus the mass of the passengers multiplied by the acceleration. Some lifts travel at the same constant acceleration as gravity so as to be more efficient. When riding the detonator accelerations of up to 5.5g can be experienced (G-force) this means that the person riding the detonator has a force acting on them 5.5 times the size of gravitational force. In the future rides such as this may be made taller or faster, there are however many limitations to designers; if the ride is made taller: o It will be less stable. o More power will be need to lift the car to the top of the tower. o A larger breaking distance will be needed. o More safety equipment will be needed All in all, the detonator has many forces acting upon it and its rider making it an exciting and enjoyable ride.