Death Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller - 1573 Words

It is known that in literature, a tragedy is one of the most popular genres. It always combines some story which discusses human sufferings with a certain sense of audience fulfillment. The roots of the tragedy are related to ancient Greece. A Greek tragedy is a sad story, which represents a character with a tragic flaw leading to his downfall. In addition, in traditional tragedy, the main character falls from high authority and often it is predetermined by fate, while the audience experiences catharsis (Bloom 2). Arthur Miller’s play Death of a Salesman is considered to be a tragedy because this literary work has some of the main characteristics of the tragedy genre. In this play, the main character Willy Loman possesses such traits and behaviors that lead to his downfall, and the audience experiences catharsis. Willy Loman as a real tragic hero comes to the decision to commit suicide because of serious financial problems of his family (Phelps 79). This play has already been criticized by a number of literary critics who represented different opinions on the plot of the book. The major goal of this paper is to critically evaluate the play Death of a Salesman written by the well-known American writer Arthur Miller, paying special attention to the play’s characteristics of a tragedy. In the play Death of a Salesman, the author investigates human nature and represents his main character as a person whose dissatisfaction with his own life leads to his tragic end. The plot ofShow MoreRelatedDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller1387 Words   |  6 PagesAmerican play-write Arthur Miller, is undoubtedly Death of a Salesman. Arthur Miller wrote Death of a Salesman in 1949 at the time when America was evolving into an economic powerhouse. Arthur Miller critiques the system of capitalism and he also tells of the reality of the American Dream. Not only does he do these things, but he brings to light the idea of the dysfunctional family. Death of a Salesman is one of America’s saddest tragedies. In Arthur Miller’s, Death of a Salesman, three major eventsRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller888 Words   |  4 PagesDeath of a Salesman† is a play written by Arthur Miller in the year 1949. The play revolves around a desperate salesman, Willy Loman . Loman is delusioned and most of the things he does make him to appear as a man who is living in his own world away from other people. He is disturbed by the fact that he cannot let go his former self. His wife Linda is sad and lonely; his youngest son Biff is presented as a swinger/player while his eldest son Happy appears anti-business and confused by the behaviorRead MoreDeath of Salesman by Arthur Miller972 Words   |  4 PagesIn the play Death of a Salesman by the playwright Arthur Miller, the use of names is significant to the characters themselves. Many playwrights and authors use names in their works to make a connection between the reader and the main idea of their work. Arthur Miller uses names in this play extraordinarily. Not only does Miller use the names to get readers to correlate them with the main idea of the play, but he also uses names to provide some irony to the play. Miller uses the meanings of someRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller1628 Words   |  7 PagesArthur Miller wrote the Pulitzer Prize winning play Death of a Salesman in 1949. The play inflated the myth of the American Dream of prosperity and recognition, that hard work and integrity brings, but the play compels the world to see the ugly truth that capitalism and the materialistic world distort honesty and moral ethics. The play is a guide toward contemporary themes foreseen of the twentieth century, which are veiled with greed, power, and betrayal. Miller’s influence with the play spreadRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller949 Words   |  4 PagesDeath of a Salesman can be described as modern tragedy portraying the remaining days in the life of Willy Loman. This story is very complex, not only because of it’s use of past and present, but because of Willy’s lies that have continued to spiral out of control throughout his life. Arthur Miller puts a modern twist on Aristotle’s definition of ancient Greek tragedy when Willy Loman’s life story directly identifies the fatal flaw of the â€Å"American Dream†. Willy Loman’s tragic flaw can be recappedRead MoreThe Death Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller846 Words   |  4 PagesA Dime a Dozen The Death of a Salesman is a tragedy written by playwright Arthur Miller and told in the third person limited view. The play involves four main characters, Biff, Happy, Linda, and Willy Loman, an ordinary family trying to live the American Dream. Throughout the play however, the family begins to show that through their endeavors to live the American Dream, they are only hurting their selves. The play begins by hinting at Willy’s suicidal attempts as the play begins with Linda askingRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller Essay2538 Words   |  11 PagesSurname 1 McCain Student’s Name: Instructor’s Name: Course: Date: Death of a Salesman Death of a salesman is a literature play written by American author Arthur Miller. The play was first published in the year 1949 and premiered on Broadway in the same year. Since then, it has had several performances. It has also received a lot of accordances and won numerous awards for its literature merit including the coveted Pulitzer for drama. The play is regarded by many critics as the perfectRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller2081 Words   |  9 Pages#1 â€Å"Death of a Salesman† by Arthur Miller is a tragedy, this play has only two acts and does not include scenes in the acts. Instead of cutting from scene to scene, there is a description of how the lighting focuses on a different place or time-period, which from there, they continue on in a different setting. The play doesn’t go in chronological order. A lot of the play is present in Willy’s flashbacks or memories of events. This provides an explanation of why the characters are acting a certainRead MoreDeath Of Salesman By Arthur Miller1475 Words   |  6 Pagesto death to achieve their so- called American dream. They live alone and there is no love of parents and siblings. They may have not noticed the America dream costs them so much, which will cause a bigger regret later. In the play Death of Salesman, Arthur Miller brings a great story of a man who is at very older age and still works hard to achieve his desire, which is the American dream. Later, he no tices that his youth is gone and there is less energy in his body. Willy Loman is a salesman, whoRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller1517 Words   |  7 PagesArthur Miller’s play titled â€Å"Death of a Salesman† offers a plethora of morals pertaining to the human condition. One moral, shown in Aesop’s fable â€Å"The Peacock and Juno†, pertains to that one should be content with that of which they are given, for one cannot be the best at everything. In Death of a Salesman there is, without a doubt, a paucity of content and happiness within the Loman family. But what does it mean to truly be content? Aesop’s fable â€Å"The Peacock and Juno†, as the name suggests,

Coffee And Its Effects On Health - 1383 Words

Introduction: The coffee bean is one of the big sources of caffeine and coffee is the most famous beverage all around the world. Coffee plants are now cultivated in over seventy countries such as Asia, India, and Africa. In 2013/14 Brazil as the leader in the production of green coffee was 8.9 million tons, followed by Vietnam, Indonesia, Colombia and India and overall record is 150.5 million bags and it was increased in previous years[1]. Currently, coffee has become more trendy in new generation than previous generations, the majority of adolescent caffeine consumers intake amount more than the amount needed it. Coffee contained ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve performance during sleep deprivation[1]. Like every drug, advantages, and disadvantages. Coffee has some positive and negative effects on health, dependents amount of consumption. For example coffee may confer a moderate positive effect of some major diseases, including Parkinson s disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus , certain types of cancers, it may protect people from liver cirrhosis, and it can be used to treat bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity, during therapy[1]. It may help to gain the weight and decreases the incidence of cerebral palsy and cognitive delay[3]. Caffeine also treats apnea of prematurity as a primary treatment, not a prevention. Some studies show that non-decaffeinated coffee over 5 cups per day may have a positive effect on cardiovascular diseases such as coronaryShow MoreRelatedCoffee And Its Effects On Health1472 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction The coffee bean is one of the big sources of caffeine and coffee is the most famous beverage all around the world. Coffee plants are now cultivated in over seventy countries such as Asia, India, and Africa. In 2013/14 Brazil as the leader in the production of green coffee was 8.9 million tons, followed by Vietnam, Indonesia, Colombia and India and overall record is 150.5 million bags and it was increased in previous years. Currently, coffee has become more trendy in new generation thanRead MoreCoffee And Its Effects On Health1366 Words   |  6 Pagesamount needs it, coffee is a big part of their life. the coffee bean is one of the big sources of caffeine and coffee is the most famous beverage all around the world[2]. coffee plants are now cultivated in over seventy countries such as Asia, India, and Africa. Currently, Coffee s become more trendy in new generation than previous generations, it’s totally addicting, also contained ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and t o improve performance during sleep deprivation. Coffee is moderately containedRead MoreThe Health Effects Of Coffee Consumption1181 Words   |  5 PagesThe health effects of coffee consumption have been controversial for many years. My claim is that moderate coffee consumption is beneficial for health. Moderate amount of coffee can possibly prevent people from some disease risks, provide high content of antioxidant for people and improve physical performance as well as brain functions. Too much coffee consumption may have adverse effects on health. Thus, the amount of coffee should be moderate in order to maximize the positive health effects. IntroductionRead MoreThe Effects Of Coffee Drinking Coffee On A Person s Health2327 Words   |  10 PagesCoffee comes in many varieties and is a very complex beverage with several hundred compounds and nutrients, some being beneficial while others are not. There are several benefits that may come from drinking coffee, ranging from better moods to possible cancer and disease protection. However, coffee may also be harmful, causing health problems or possible addiction. Also, the effect coffee has on a person’s health, mood, etc. depends on the variety of the coffee. Additionally, coffee is not recommendedRead MoreLiquid Energy : Examining The Health Effects Of Coffee1817 Words   |  8 PagesEnergy: Examining the Health Effects of Coffee Americans love coffee. People all around the world have enjoyed this wonderful beverage for centuries. From the very strong brews of Cuba, Turkey, and Italy, to the American Lattes and Cafà © Mochas, the love of coffee is pancultural. We as Americans are very enthusiastic in our obsession with this delicious and sometimes addictive drink. According to the Harvard School of Public Health, â€Å"54% of Americans over the age of 18 drink coffee every day,† and â€Å"AmericansRead MoreHealth Benefits And Side Effects On The Consumption Of Coffee2973 Words   |  12 PagesIntroduction The consumption of coffee is an essential staple to start an early morning in the United States and worldwide (Freedman et al. 2012). Like coffee, caffeine is a component that also can be present in energy drinks, tea, and pre-workout supplements. But to be specific, coffee, according to statistics has over 150 million people who drink an average of 3.2 cups of coffee daily, which means that about 400 million cups of coffee every day is consumed. (Patil et al. 2011) For some peopleRead MoreIs Drinking too much Coffee Bad or Good? Essay1114 Words   |  5 PagesAlthough coffee is viewed as a food item, it can be used to understand the rhetoric’s of health, addiction and as a drink. The genus coffea produces berries that are used to obtain coffee. The commercially exploited species are coffea Arabica and coffea robusta. Coffea Arabica is the most used species that is used to extract coffee. This type is found in the highlands of Ethiopia, Sudan and Kenya and produces high quality coffee. The earliest consumption of coffee is believed to have been by theRead MoreCoffee Daily: Windows to the World1571 Words   |  6 Pagesthe world wake up to a cup of coffee but is this harmful or beneficial? Research shows that the pros to coffee, at responsible amounts per day, outweigh the cons or negative effects of coffee and even have the same effects as medicines given over the counter at pharmacy or even prescribed by a pharmacist. Many people just drink coffee without even knowing the location of where coffee began but this can be very crucial to the understanding to finding the benefits of coffee. â€Å"In the Ethiopian highlandsRead MoreCaffeine, Caffeine And Health Benefits Between Coffee And Energy Drinks And How They Each Affect Brain Function1242 Words   |  5 Pagespeople either enjoy to drink a cup of coffee, an energy drink, or sometimes both. People drink these without any knowledge of them other than the fact that they contain caffeine. How much caffeine do they contain though? Are these drinks even considered to be healthy for humans? There are various differences in the nutritional facts, caffeine absorption, and health benefits between coffee and energy drinks and how they each affect brain function. Black coffee is typically composed of caffeine, potassiumRead MoreDifferent Types Of Teas That Have Different Purposes For The Body Essay1446 Words   |  6 Pagesall have drank or tasted coffee and/or tea. Some people love the taste or the effects coffee or tea can have on our bodies. Coffee is very effective on the body, people drink coffee to help them get going every morning. There are several different types of teas that have different purposes for the body. Tea was first discovered when a dried leaf landed in Chinese Emperor Shen Nung’s bowl of water changing the color of it in 2737 B.C. (When was tea invented?, 2016). Coffee was discovered in Ethiopia

Organized Crime and Terrorism - 1000 Words

Treverton et all define crime and terrorism as illegal activities which greatly revolve around economic interests. The document accurately depicts how ‘organized crime seeks money and why terrorism needs it’ . Furthermore, according to the authors, the definitions about crime presented by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), United Nations (UN), and the International Police (INTERPOL) coincide in some terms regarding the essence of organized crime. All of the aforementioned identify key words within their definitions such as groups of individuals working under illegal structures with profitable aims. On the other hand, the article highlights the importance of the effects that globalization and Information Technology (IT) have†¦show more content†¦On the other hand, the authors outline the importance of drug trafficking as the most significant and current source of income for both terrorist and international criminal organizations. Similarly, The Jamestown Foundation cites the example of how profits of narcotrafficking have been used to strengthen international links between terrorist organizations: ‘ETA has been training FARC members in explosives and weapons. In exchange, the FARC compensated the Basque terrorists, using financial revenues obtained through drug trafficking’ . Thus, one could affirm that the market of illegal drugs and narcotics produce enormous revenues which often support criminal organizations, revolutionary groups, and terrorist organizations among many other illegal forms of crime. On the other hand, Traverton et all assert that crimes committed by Islamic terrorists alienate the communities and this is considered as one of their biggest failures; However, it is important to mention that alienation is not a consequence of Islamic groups’ terrorism exclusively. Every terrorist action, independent of its perpetrator, causes the same effect on the public: alienation. In fact, one of the main objectives of any terrorist action is to alienate the community against the government and generate the sensation that the targeted government is incapable of protecting its own citizens . Hence, one could say that, in this case, contrary to what the author state the Islamic terrorists areShow MoreRelatedSimilarities Between Terrorism and Organized Crime:1630 Words   |  7 PagesSimilarities between terrorism and organized crime: Today’s terrorism and organized crime groups are so similar that their differences are starting to blur and the commonalities are becoming clearer. Terrorism and organized crime is a perfect match, that may have different objectives, but they can accomplish their goals through one another. The underground network, tactics they share and utilize to accomplish a task in support of one another, recruiting methods, financial institutions, and theRead MoreDrug Trafficking, Organized Crime, and Terrorism Interactions586 Words   |  2 PagesDrug Trafficking, Organized Crime, and Terrorism Interactions In recent years, the link between organized crime, terrorism, and drug trafficking has become increasingly intertwined. The interactions between these three organizations have facilitated terrorism on a global scale as the activities perpetrated by these groups have demonstrated. These formerly independent endeavors have not only began to collaborate with each other, but discernable trends have emerged due to their collaboration. InRead MoreTheories And Rational Choice Theory1274 Words   |  6 Pageschoice theory. The two types of crimes that were chosen were organized crime, specifically focusing on gangs, and terrorism. Then the crimes will be compared and contrasted. Finally, the developmental theory will be applied to organized crime to explain why and how it happens. The rational choice theory will be applied to terrorism to explain what compels individuals to attempt this form of criminality. Organized Crime (Gangs) The definition of organized crime is â€Å"crime committed by groups engaged inRead MoreControlling Organized Crime1200 Words   |  5 PagesControlling Organize Crime Paper Louis Pierre CJA/384 May 6, 2013 University of phoenix Professor: Glen Winters Controlling Organize Crime Paper Organize crime is a conspiratorial activity involving the coordination of numerous people in the planning and execution of illegal acts or in the pursuit of a legitimate objective by unlawful means, for example, threatening a legitimate business to get stake in it. However, organize crime involves continuous commitment by primary members, althoughRead MoreLaw Enforcement, US Military, and Terrorism923 Words   |  4 PagesSection 4: Law Enforcement, U.S. Military, and Terrorism Law enforcement agencies at the federal level and the U.S. military play a significant role in preventing terrorism on a state, national, and global scale. Former Vice-President Dick Cheney comments, On the ground, the first responders and local police [are] the first line of defense and intelligence, followed by federal law enforcement, with our foreign intelligence and military forces on call (Melber). Through a collaboration of variousRead More The Relationship of Terrorism and Drugs Essay894 Words   |  4 PagesThe Relationship of Terrorism and Drugs Terrorism has many and varied links to the drug trade. Terrorists may use drugs for funding of their cause; may include drugs as part of their cause, as in Peru; or terrorism may be the result of the drug trade, as it is in Columbias Extraditables and Italys mafia. With the many linkages between the two crimes it seems that to crackdown on one you must crackdown on the other. The ties between the two are such that enforcement of one will hurt theRead MoreSecurity and Domestic Terrorism Essay1081 Words   |  5 PagesEDM 501 – Domestic Terrorism -Module 3 – Case: Security and Domestic Anti-Terrorism (Part 1) May 2012 What are the limits of power of the FBI in pursuing surveillance of potential terrorists within and without the U.S.? In your view, is the FBI adequately organized, staffed, and trained to perform the myriad of missions tasked? Based on the readings and your research, what is the status of the USA Patriot Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2011 and resultant action on the key divisiveRead MoreFederal Bureau Of Investigation ( Fbi ) Defines Terrorism1693 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction The federal bureau of investigation (FBI) defines terrorism as the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, and/or any segment thereof. If one makes the argument that BLM is a terrorist group the ideology of the movement must fit within the framework stated above. First, BLM stands for â€Å"Black Lives Matter†. It, in itself is nothing more than a concept about which all else revolves. It is true, theRead MoreGlobal Crime Analysis1134 Words   |  5 PagesGlobal Crimes Analysis University of Phoenix Cynthia Butler CJA/394 April 16, 2012 This paper will identify the various major global crimes and criminal issues that affect national and international criminal justice systems and processes. In addition, there will be a comparison and contrast of the different criminal justice systems and how they have addressed major global crimes and criminal issues. Global crime is an issue that threatens the safety andRead MoreThe United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Is Combating Drugs, Terrorism, and Criminal Activity529 Words   |  3 PagesThe United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is the unit of the United Nations (UN) charged with combating illicit drugs, terrorism, and other criminal activity. It is headquartered in Vienna, Austria, and has twenty-one field offices and a liaison office in New York. The agency has approximately 500 members across the globe who develop and enforce drug control policies that are responsive to their individual needs. The UNODC’s work program consists of three major pillars. The first of these

Child Poverty And Academic Achievement - 1448 Words

Child Poverty and Academic Achievement Francesca Diona University of San Francisco According to the National Center for Children in Poverty, over 16 million children (22%) in the United States live below the federal poverty level, which is $23,550 per year for a family of four. Research has shown that a family requires an income of about twice that amount just to cover basic needs and expenses. Using these statistics, 45% of children in the US live in low-income households. Most parents of low-income children are employed, but unsteady employment accompanied with low wages leave families struggling to make ends meet. The effects of poverty on children are numerous and long lasting, such as impaired learning ability as well as social, behavioral, and emotional difficulties. Childhood poverty can also contribute to poor physical and mental health. Research has shown that poverty is the greatest threat to s child’s well-being, but public policies can make a difference when they are implemented effectively. One of the most obvious and frequently researched consequences of child poverty is low academic achievement. Duncan et al. (1994) concluded that family income and poverty level remain the most powerful determining factors of the cognitive development of children even after many other factors such as family structure and parental education are considered. The same study also found that there was a positive correlation between family incomeShow MoreRelatedRisk Factors Associated With Poverty1541 Words   |  7 Pages Poverty involves a complex array of risk factors that harmfully affects the population in a multitude of ways. The primary risk factors commonly associated with families living in poverty are emotional and social challenges, acute and chronic stressors, cognitive delays, and health related issues (Jensen, 2009). The culmination of risk factors make everyday life in poverty a struggle. Those risk factors are interwoven and comprehensive, often leading to devastatingly adverse effects. Jensen (2009)Read MoreThe Poverty Theory Developed By Lewis1627 Words   |  7 PagesThe poverty theory developed by Lewis (1968) and Payne (2001) argues that the culture of poverty is both an adaptation and reaction of the economically disadvantaged to their marginal position, low socioeconomic status and impartibility in achieving success. According to the poverty theory established by Lewis (1968), there are many traits associated with the culture of poverty. Families living on poverty have a level o f education and are living in inadequate housing conditions. This factor is oftenRead MoreThe Significance Of Child Development In Low Socioeconomic1517 Words   |  7 PagesThe Significance of Child Development in Low Socioeconomic Communities Emma Kennedy Project #1 AIS 1203.027 University of Texas at San Antonio Introduction Poverty creates long term disadvantages for children. Many of these disadvantages include lower academic achievement, home environment stress, and relational issues between parent and child. In our world today, poverty is affecting more children developmentally. It has been accounted as of 2017, that 15 million childrenRead MoreNo Child Left Behind Act1737 Words   |  7 PagesFirst, what is the achievement gap? According to the achievement gap in education refers to systematic variances in the ability to learn between students from majority populations and students from minority populations. The most significant effort made by the federal government to improve the nation s schools and student learning is the 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). The ESEA was largely designed to address the achievement gap in multicultural educationRead MoreEffects Of Poverty On The Health Of A Child Essay1359 Words   |  6 PagesAs of 2015, 14.5 million child ren are living in poverty. What is poverty you ask? Poverty defined by Webster’s Dictionary is the state of being extremely poor. In my opinion, poverty is much more than not having enough money to supply basic needs. Poverty is lack of shelter, lack of food in most cases, being sick and not able to see a doctor. Having very little to no resources in order to acquire the proper education, poverty is one of the major problems among society today. Affecting all ages atRead MorePublic Housing Assistance Programs1214 Words   |  5 Pages In his paper, Olson differentiated between the government’s methods of public housing and delineating the benefits and costs of each. His paper focuses mainly on the heavy fiscal costs of public-based assistance, which he argues will perpetuate poverty (Olson, 2016). Most major research agrees that the current public housing system is in a state of disrepair and in need of reform (Goetz, 2014) (Solomon, 2005) (Utt 1996). Some wish to change the subsidy structure of the public housing projects.Read MoreNo Child Left Behind Act Essay1646 Words   |  7 Pages The No Child Left Behind Act was based on the Elementary Secondary Education Act of 1965. The act was established based on the promise of Thomas Jefferson to create a free public education system in Virginia (Hammond, Kohn, Meier, Sizer Wood, 2004). The act is now reauthorized as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. The purpose of the No Child Left Behind Act was to make sure that children were given a fair, quality education. The act set out to close the achievement gaps in educationRead MoreThe Effects Of Poverty And Student Achievement : Does Poverty Affect The Culture Of A School?1195 Words   |  5 Pages The Effect of Poverty and Student Achievement: Does Poverty Affect the Culture of a School? Veronica Curtis, B.A, M.Ed Stony Brook University ABSTRACT Research Questions The following research questions guided this study. Research Question One According to the research literature, what effect does poverty have on academic performance? Research Question Two According to the research literature, what is the influence of behavior management strategies andRead MoreEffects Of Poverty On Middle Childhood Development1403 Words   |  6 PagesPoverty can have a strong influence on various kinds of development throughout middle childhood. It can alter socioemotional development, cognitive development, and physical health. (Evans, 2013). Parenting practices, neighborhoods, and overall environment play a significant role regarding to the emotional and physical health during development in middle childhood. Disruption with physical and emotional health could potentially cause harm to the child. In this essay, I will explain how poverty affectsRead MorePoverty is a Hidden Epidemic1175 Words   |  5 PagesPoverty Poverty is the state or condition of having little or no money, goods, or means of support. (11) Poverty is a hidden epidemic that is on the rise. Poverty can affect anyone and its consequencest can be serious. Poverty can affect someone academically, socially, and emotionally. The topic of poverty is of interest to me because I live in a neighborhood that is in poverty and I am wondering why it is in poverty and the methods of alleviating it of poverty. In addition, I live in a neighborhood

Freund Free Essays

Creating Deviance Rules: A Macroscopic Model Author(s): Ronald J. Troyer and Gerald E. Markle Source: The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. We will write a custom essay sample on Freund or any similar topic only for you Order Now 23, No. 2 (Spring, 1982), pp. 157-169 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Sociological Society Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/4106327 Accessed: 16/11/2009 09:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp. JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=black. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor. org. Blackwell Publishing and Midwest Sociological Society are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Sociological Quarterly. http://www. jstor. org The SociologicalQuarterly (Spring1982):157-169 23 Deviance Rules: Creating A Macroscopic Model* RonaldJ. Troyer,Drake University GeraldE. Markle,Western MichiganUniversity In this paperwe proposea macrolevel the modelfor analyzing creationof deviance rules. We begin by placingthe phenomenon withinthe contextof the social factist and social definitionist the sociological traditions, identifying insightsand difficulties the socialproblems We rule creation. sugliterature for deviance presents explaining difficulties be resolvedby lacingthe processwithina can gest that the theoretical The consequent dialecticalmodel of deviance framework. sociologyof knowledge is that society is composedof a numberof designation based on the assumption in of definitions deviance generalinterests varying degreesof conflictwithprevailing outcomes previous of This balanceor accommodation contests. becomes representing vulnerable with the introduction increasein strainwhich is a potentialresource or for inte rest a The groupsdesiring new definition. utcomeof the ensuingconflictis seen as dependent the abilityof the combatants employresources the battle. in on to We concludeby identifying advantages model has for studying deviance the the the rulecreation process. of This is how I treat theory: it is somethingto guide our understanding the social world; it helps us throughthe labyrinthof the buzzingconfusion of conflictingideologies, and, most of all, theory liberatesus from dead facts and worn-out myths. Davis 1980:xv) But since those sociologistswho espouse a strong and explicit determinism,and those who practice the techniquesof â€Å"verstehen,† â€Å"empathy,†and â€Å"takingthe actor’spoint of view,† differ upon so very many issues, technical and otherwise, the present suggestions are more likely to be treated as a pollution of the boundarybetween schools of thought than as a pathway to agreement. (Barnes, 1974:83-84) For decades the sociology of devianc e focused on rule violation. This approach produced works on rule violators, described which rules were violated and how they were violated, and, arguably, why they were violated. Largely neglected in this work was the process by which rules were created; that is, the process by which deviant categories and designations were constructed. Recently scholars have begun to focus attention on this issue, resulting in various empirical case studies or rationales for the import of the collective definition process (Nuehring and Markle, 1974; Conrad, 1975; Pfohl, 1977; Spector and Kitsuse, 1977; Levine, 1978; Schneider, 1978; Markle and Troyer, 1979; Conrad and Schneider, 1980. As with many deviance studies, these efforts have not produced an explicit framework relating rule creation to the broader theoretical conceptions of social processes and the structural order. As a remedy, ? 1982 by The Sociological Quarterly. All rights reserved. 0038-0253/82/1300-0157$00. 75 *The authors thank Roland Chilton, Ronald Kramer, Frances McCrea, Joseph W. Schneider, Malcolm Spector, and Mayer Zald for their helpful comments. Ronald J. Troyer’s address is Department of Sociol ogy, Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa 50311. 158 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY Collins has called for a radicaldeparture deviancestudies,statfrom traditional ing that â€Å"thenext step clearlymustbe to abolishthe field of devianceentirely,to and link its materialswith what is knownof generalexplanations stratification of politics† (1975:17). And Davis (1980:5) has observedthat the time has come â€Å"for the sociology of deviance to move into mainstreamtheory–based sociology. † What theoreticalform ought these investigations take? The developments in sociologicaltheoryin the past few decadeshave been focusedaroundtwo dominant perspectives. The nature of these approachescan best be graspedby referringto Ritzer’s (1975) distinctionbetween the social factist and social definitionist paradigms. The social factist is primarilyconcernedwith the cause of social phenomena; thus the questionasked is a why question. By contrast,since the social definitionist more concernedwith process,the researchquestionis a is how question. In studyingdeviance,for example,the social factistshave focused on behaviordescribing extent and natureasking†Whydo thesepeople do it? † its focusedon the process On the otherhand, the social definitionists have primarily Howhavethesepersons as asking by whichpeoplecometo be defined deviant the label? † acquired deviant have and Webelieve the theoretical of that efforts thefactists thedefinitionists been useful. Such work, though clearly the creationand social constructionof of scholars,is necessaryif the study of rule creationis to lead to generalizations wider applicability. Towar dthat end, we reviewsome relevantliterature, develop creation a sociologyof knowledgeframework, then presenta macrodeviance and model which attemptsto bridge the gap between the factist and definitionist erspectives. Literature between PerhapsArmandMauss has best capturedthe essence of the difference the two majortraditionalapproachesto social problemstheory. The essence of the scholarlydisagreement, noted, came down to one grouparguingthat â€Å"sohe cial problems are ‘objective’realities which generate collective behavior and political action†versus the view that â€Å"socialproblemsare essentiallygenerated by collectivebehaviorand politicalprocesses†(1977:602, emphasisin original). The former closely approximatesthe social factist approach,while the latter the represents social definitionist position. Social factist scholarshave tended to explain social problemsas the product of some environmentally condition. This tradition, disharmonious usuallytermed the strain explanation,has often focused on economic conditions (Oberschall, between differentgoals, differentvalues, 1973) but also includes discrepancies values and norms, knowledgeand actions, technologyand values, and so forth (Smelser, 1962: chap. 3). Smelser,for example,indicatesthat â€Å"norm-oriented movements†(definedas attemptsto restore,protect,modify,or createnormsin the name of a generalizedbelief,† 1962:270) often springfrom the following kindsof strain: Sometimes the appearanceof new knowledge initiates a movement to apply this knowledge in order to eradicate a condition previously taken for granted. (1962: 287) CreatingDeviance Rules 159 can betweennormative and standards actualsocialconditions proAny disharmony videthe basisfor a movement whoseobjective is to modifynorms. 1962:289) it Davis (1975) used a strainmodel to explain changesin the collectivedefinition of deviance. Whileseeingdeviancedefinitions productsof powerstruggles as between groups with new rules representing values of those groups able to the win state endorsement their values, Davis suggeststhat â€Å"the diffusionof new of knowledgeis a majorcause of collective searchesfor new normsin the modern world†(1975:53). Although strain h as been a populartheoreticalapproachfor studyingsome social problems(e. g. race riots), few empiricalstudiesof deviancedesignation have followed from this tradition. PerhapsChamblisscame close in the study of the creation of new rules against vagrancy. In his words, â€Å"The vagrancy statutes emerged as a result of changes in other parts of the social structure† (1964:69). Specifically,the strain was the breakdownof the serf system; vagrancy laws were the responseof the rulingclass to protect their interestsand bring the system back to harmony. Zurcheret al. (1977) have also pointed to the crucial role of strainin the emergenceof antipornography crusades. In the communities amongstatus studied,they found that as a resultof inconsistencies variables,the traditionalmiddle class was experiencingthreatsto its life-style. were attemptsto the Consequently, effortsto gain new rulesagainstpornography bolster the legitimacyof their life-style. In other words, in the strain tradition of new definitionsof devianceare seen as responsesto the introduction various kindsof socialchangein society. Insteadof focusingon the causes of social problems,such as strain(objective traditionstressthat collective acconditions), scholarsin the social definitionist tions emergefrominteraction, processes. As Blumerstated: especiallyinterpretive â€Å"social problemslie in and are productsof a process of collective definition† (1971:301). Spector and Kitsuse (1977) pursuedthis theme with their argument that scholarsmust focus on the claims-making the process to understand emergenceof a social problemor definitionof deviance. This processtraditionhas spawneda varietyof empiricalstudies,often focusdefinitionsof deviance. The ing on the creationof criminaland health-related best known of these studies is Becker’s (1963) analysisof the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Arguingthat there was no majorincreasein the actualuse of the drug, which would be the focus of a strain explanation,Becker attributesthe new rule to the activitiesof a â€Å"moralentrepreneur. † (For other interpretations, see Dickson, 1968; Galliherand Walker, 1977, 1978. ) Other studies have argued that juvenile courts were not created as a responseto increasesin delinquency,as the strainmodel would predict,but ratheras part of a moralcrusade of (Platt, 1969) or as the productof organizational conflictbetweensupporters the police and probationdepartments (Hagan and Leon, 1977). In two studies of sex offensedefinitions,Rose (1977) and Roby (1969) also emphasizeprocessualexplanations. Roby examinedchanges in the New York State penal law on prostitution and found that the relative power of numerous interest groups and individuals determined the final version of the act. Similarly, Rose related the rise of the â€Å"rape problem† to the ideology and organizations generated by the women’s liberation movement. 160 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY of The status politics interpretation the temperancemovementby Gusfield in (1963, 1967) representsanotherone of the majorprocessualapproaches the literature. Basically,Gusfieldsuggeststhat the attemptsto have a behaviordesignated as deviantare often symbolicbattles†betweenopposedsystemsof moralities, culturesand stylesof life† (1963:173). In otherwords,it is not the behavior per se or social conditionswhich cause the attemptto label the behavioras deviant. Instead the designationof deviance must be seen as a productof status of for conflict,the competition the officialassignment honorand prestigethrough of legitimation groupnorms. The creationof new health-related of designations deviancehas been reviewed Conrad and Schneider(1980). These authorshave set forth a â€Å"sequential by of model† and â€Å"grounded on generalizations† the medicalization deviance. Following Spectorand Kitsuse,they emphasizethe import,and not the accuracy,of medicalclaims-making, view claims as strategicdevices, and view medicalization which reflectpolitics and demedicalization devianceas â€Å"cyclicalphenomena† of of the day. In the most recent processualanalysis,Schursuggeststhat deviancemust be seen as a politicalphenomenon. Arguingthat there are at least two sides in any stigmacontest, Schursuggeststhat what is really at stake in deviancedefinitions is the power of the respectivegroups. Since â€Å"power,of any sort, is more like a processthan an object† (1980:8), â€Å"deviancedefiningis not a static event but a continuousand changingprocess†(1980:66). In summary,the literaturereviewed above suggests two models for understandingthe collectivedefinitionof deviance. The process approacharguesthat collectivedefinitionsare the productof interestgroupdynamics. By contrastthe are is for, strainexplanation that societaldisjunctions responsible or at least play a majorrole in, the emergence new definitions. of BeyondDichotomousModels During the past decade, a numberof scholarshave attemptedto move beyond the raditionalstrainor processmodels. For example,Mauss (1975; Maussand of Wolfe, 1977) arguesthat new social problemsor new definitions devianceare best understoodas productsof social movementsled by interestgroups. In this view, social arrangements permit collective behaviorwhich usually focuses on structural strainsbroughtaboutby social change. Thoughmanys trainsare present in society, problem definitionis the product of interest groups organizing social movementswhich push for acceptanceof their definitionof reality. Resource mobilizationtheory is another attemptto move beyond the strain and process models. This framework begins with the assumptionthat society is composedof competinggroups (economic, status, racial,etc. ). Strainis always present,since thereis conflictamonggroupsover whichvalues,norms,economic and arrangements, so forth are to prevailin the society. Group conflictand the of social movementsare analyzedin terms of the abilityof the colemergence lectivities to create and mobilize resources (Oberschall, 1973). A dynamic element is introduced into the analysis: authorities as well as challengers possess resources; deployment by one side requires some kind of response (mobilization of additional resources) from the other side, lest the cause be defaulted. CreatingDeviance Rules 161 Marxistapproaches have also triedto move beyondstrainand processmodels. of Initially Marxist/conflict interpretations new rules defining deviance suggested that they were â€Å"firstand foremosta reflectionof the interestsof the governingclass† (Chambliss,1974:37). In this view â€Å"thestate and legal systemare seen as instruments which can be manipulated,almost at will, by the capitalist class† (Beirne, 1979:379), an approachillustratedby Platt’s (1974) reinterpretation of the establishmentof the juvenile court as a conscious effort by SomeMarxcapitaliststo preserveexistingpoliticaland economicarrangements. ists have assigneda more ambiguous role to the state (Block, 1978), suggesting that it exercises a â€Å"relativeautonomy†in its relationship the capitalistclass to the enactmentof legislationis not alwaysin (Beirne, 1979:379). Consequently, the objectiveinterestsof the capitalistclass, â€Å"but each case must be examined from and empirically on its own merits†(Beirne, 1979:380). Whatis important, this position,is that all of this occurswithinthe boundaries providedby the prevailing structuralrelations. Lauderdaleand Inveraritycriticizedthe early conflict approachesfor inadequately examiningthe politicalprocessunderlyingthe creationof deviance. Arguingthat â€Å"devianceis socially definedand as such is and changedthroughpoliticalprocesses†(1980a:36), they created,maintained, ask underwhat conditionsa form of actioncomes to be definedas deviant(Lauderdale, 1980:v). Noting previousstudiesare characterized a â€Å"preoccupation by with subjectiveinterestsand lack of attentionto measuringobjectiveinterests† (1980b:229), they call for attentionto objectiveconditionsunderlyingthe deviance definitionprocess. These efforts are advancesover analyses which attributenew definitionsof devianceto social psychological processesor to the activitiesof individuals(moral entrepreneurs). Here, at least, an effortis made to locate the deviancewithin the larger social context. However, several issues remainunresolved. First, although recent effortshave attemptedto find a role for objectiveconditions,the remainsunclear. At role of strainin the generation new deviancedesignations of one group of scholars,the social definitionists, suggestobjectivecondipresent tions are largely irrelevant,while others (especially Lauderdaleand Inverarity, to 1980b) are callingfor moreattention objectivefactors. A second majorunresolvedproblemis that none of the collectivedefinitionof deviance approachesexplains why specific behaviorsare selected for deviance silent on this issue. Finally, In categorization. fact, the literatureis remarkably the approachesdiscussedabove do not yet explainwhy some deviancecreation effortsare unsuccessful. is in this contextthat we believe that resourcemobiliIt zation theory could prove valuable in the study of rule creationand deviance designation. Not only does it point toward relevantvariablesfor study, it also to providesan empiricalframework assess previousmovementsand predictthe successor failureof ongoingmovements. Any model or theory of deviance creation must addressthese issues. More into a more genspecifically,a way must be found to subsumethese differences eral model rendering theoreticalissues amenableto empiricalevaluation. Toward a Sociology of Knowledge Given its theoretical import, it seems to us that there have been inexplicably few 162 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY studiesof rule creation. Marxists,subsuming issue withinthe superstructure, the have focusedon the creationof laws whichmaintainruling-class privilege. Strain scholarstreat new rules as responsesto changedsocial conditions(new knowledge, Davis, 1975). Only process scholars have directly addressedthe issue, viewing collective definitionsof devianceas â€Å"emergent productsof an interpretive process† (Hawkins and Tiedman, 1975:340), but studies in this tradition have not produceda rigoroustheoreticalexplanation. Instead, isolated studies have been characterized descriptiveand idiosyncratic detail withoutconnecby or tion to socialstructure generalsocialprocesses. In theirstudyof the medicalization deviance,Conradand Schneider(1980) of a solutionto the interactionist the pose impasse. Although labeling-interactionist of perspectivepresentsus with the questionsto ask concerningthe development deviancedesignations,† they note (1980:20), â€Å"it is a sociologyof knowledgeapproachthat is necessaryto answerthem. â€Å"We thinkof the sociologyof knowledge knowlas a study of the materialbasis of social ideas, categories,designations, and so forth. From this frameworkthe dependentvariablechanges: no edge, longer do we studyth e deviantactor;ratherwe attemptto locate historicallythe origins and the social forces which supportedand opposed the definitionof the deviant category. As Friedsonhas stated, the analysisshouldnot focus on â€Å"the etiology of some state so much as the etiology of the meaningof a state. Thus it asks questionslike: How does a state come to be considereddeviant? How does it come to be considered kindof devianceratherthan another? † one (1970: 215-16). deviant To developtheirknowledgeapproach, Conradand Schneider interpret behaviorsas social constructionsof reality. Adopting Berger and Luckmann’s as (1966) scheme,they view realityconstruction a social processof threestages: The processbegins with the and internalization. xternalization, objectification, of construction a culturalproductor definition a personor collectionof perby becomespartof the generallyacceptedbody sons, continuesas the new definition of knowledge,and concludesas the individualsin publictake the new definition for grantedas partof theirworldview. We applaudConradand Schneider’s explicit sociologyof knowledgeand find their social constructionist approachinsightful. Their analysisof the historical contribution a dimensionsof the medicalization deviancerepresents significant of in by placingdeviancedesignations the broadersocial context. At the sametime, we are uncomfortable with the apparentabsenceof a theoreticalmodel pointing to a more explicit method of data analysis. History is all aroundus; we need the guidanceto separate datafromthe noise. between In his Ideology and Utopia (1936), Karl Mannheimdistinguishes two types of sociologyof knowledge:†on the one hand a theoryand on the other hand an historical-sociological methodof research†(p. 266). As a theorywith the sociology of knowledgehas been pursuedvigepistemologicalimplications, orously. Its methodologicalimplicationshave, however, remainedunderdevelhimselflargelyignoredthe methodological aspectsof knowledge oped. Mannheim theory, though he did write that â€Å"the most important task of the sociology of knowledge at present is to demonstrate its capacity in actual research in the historical-sociological realm† (p. 306). The methodological implications of Mannheim’s work have been pursued most CreatingDeviance Rules 163 rigorouslyby David Bloor in his 1976 book Knowledgeand Social Imagery. Bloor contendsthat our concernshouldbe phenomenological; method,howour scientific. Thesociologistis concernedwith knowlever, ought to be rigorously edge,† he writes, â€Å"purelyas a naturalphenomenon†¦ instead of definingit as true or false belief, knowledgefor the sociologist is whatevermen take to be knowledge†(p. 2). Given that knowledgeis relativeand historicallyunstable, Bloor’s task is to elucidatethe materialbasis of its variation. To accomplishthis in task, he proposesa methodwhich he calls the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge,to wit, that our analysisought to be causal, impartial,and symmetrical. While sociologists would not want to argue that social factors are the sole cause of belief, they should focus on how social conditionsproduceand reflect belief. In demandingan approachwhich is â€Å"impartial with respectto truthand success or failure†(p. 5), Bloor is not advofalsity, rationalityor irrationality, catinga value neutralposition. The task is not to crownwinnersor punishlosers but to understandboth sides. In that sense, Bloor’s sociology is agnostic. Ultito even irrelevant, mate truth,in any sense of the phrase,is seen as peripheral, the analysis. Finally the strong programdemandsa symmetrical analysis. Too often scholarshave attempted analyzedeviantand normalbeliefs from differto ent stances, the former needing special explanation,while the latter–seen as logical, rational,or truthful-are seen to need no specialexplanation. We are interestedin using the sociology of knowledgeas a methodological to guide, as a way of using historicalmaterials build rigorousmodels. In a sense, then, we use Mannheimand Bloor to build a theoreticalmethod for empirical methods,especiallyas it appliesto socialhistory, study. The notion of theoretical has been developedby Stinchcombe(1978; see also Graff, 1980). Good social theory, he asserts,must be groundedin historicaldata. â€Å"Peopledo much better the theory,†he argues,†wheninterpreting historicalsequencethanthey do when they set out to do ‘theory'† (p. 17) and â€Å"thatthe centraloperationfor building theories of history is seeking causally significantanalogiesbetween instances† of Thuswe aremost interested the methodological in implications the sociology of knowledge:as a way of pointingtowardvariables,as a way of using history, as a way-in short-of structuring analysis. Suchan analyticstrategy,as a macroand rigorousversionof groundedtheory,ought to allow us to relateprescopic vious theoriesof devianceand our data in an iterativesort of way and, thus, to build and evaluatea model of how deviantcategoriesare designated. A DialecticalModelof DevianceDesignation In attemptingto addressthe theoreticaland methodologicalissues raised, we propose a dialecticalmodel of deviance designation. The model, presentedin to however,it attempts transcend Figure1, is influenced resourcemobilization; by arany single theory. We begin with the assumptionthat within the structural is composedof a numberof generalinterestsin varying rangements, everysociety degreesof conflict. Such groupsmay be of varyingnature:with inclusiveor exin clusive membership, broad or narrowfocus. Their concernwith the definition (p. 7). Figure 1. A DialecticalModel of DevianceDefiniti General vested other interests Definition i – +- Strain General vested other interests S/ Specific interests CreatingDeviance Rules 165 question,however,is either peripheral,quiescent,or not effectivein the public arena. The initial or prevailingdefinitionof a behavioras acceptableor unacceptable representsthe outcome of previousspecific interestgroup conflict;in other words, the balanceof the resourcesthe two sides were able to mobilize. or This balance or accommodation becomes vulnerablewith the introduction increase of strain. This developmentprovides existing general interest groups with a new resourceand opportunity claims-making. for Specificinterestgroups towardthe specific (includingthe state) form,or mobilize,or becomeredirected issue in question. Faced with a challenge to their interests,groups benefiting from the prevailingdefinitionrespondby marshaling their own resources. The battle of these groups to maintainor change a rule is joined, the outcome dependingon the balance of the mobilizedresources. To speak of the â€Å"balanceof mobilized resources†should not be seen as merely suggestinga simplisticaccountingbalance. Of coursethe matteris muchmore complex. For example,the efficientemployment resources–usingresourcesin an arenawherethey have of maximal impact-may be just as importantas quantity. The net result is that over a periodof time, at time2,the originaldefinitionsurvivesor a new designation takesits place. for In explicatingthe model, we make the following arguments its utility in collectivedefinition deviance: of examining issues raisedin the 1. The model addressesor handlesmanyof the theoretical literature. For example, existing sociological explanations assign central importance to, or ignore, the role of strain. The dialectical model directs the scholar’sattentionto the role of strainbut does not preclude,in fact demands, examinationof other social processes. In addition,by viewing the state as an interestedparty, albeit a group with unique resources,it is possibleto examine official actions without assumingthe existence of an all powerfulmonolithical the definitional outcomes. Furthermore, modelpermitsanalysis entitydetermining and explanationof outcomeswhereneitherside achievestotal victory. in 2. The dialecticalmodel is consistentwith the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge. As Bloor (1976) has requested,this modelis causal,impartial, and symmetrical. Figure 1 is time ordered;that is, variablesappearin causal sequence with one another. Moreoverthese sequences are made explicit, thus data analysis. The model thus allowsfor attemptsat statisticalmodelfacilitating of processvariablesby techniquesdevelopedfrom social factisttraditions. ing The model treats deviance rule creationsas naturalphenomena. Whethera rule is good or bad is irrelevant our analysis. RecallingGusfield’sstudyof the to temperancemovement,the validityof analysiswas independentof truthclaims about alcohol. Whetherthe drug is actuallyan aphrodisiac,a depressant,or a tool of the devil was essentiallyirrelevantto his conclusions. Taking such an it agnosticpositionhas methodological implications: allowsfor the formalmodelvariables. Moreover,Bloor’slast dictum-that analysis ing of phenomenological be symmetrical–hasobvious implicationsfor the dialecticalmodel. Note that interestsfor or againstany definitionare handledin the same way, and have the same causal input into the model. 166 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY 3. The model is dialectical. The theoryis timelessand has no end stage. Figure 1 shows only one referenceframe. But upon acceptanceof â€Å"Definition2,† general vested or other interestsare alreadyin place, advocatingfor or againsta new definition. Though the theory is sequential,in the sense that it goes forwardin remainuntime, the units of time are not specified. Some deviancedesignations for long periods of time, others move more rapidlythroughstages of changed and vindication. Conradand Schneider,thinkingalong the same stigmatization of and demedicalization deviance the lines, have conceptualized medicalization as â€Å"cyclical†(1980:271). We preferto use the termdialectical,in that it leaves ratherthan suggestinga rethe directionof the next redefinition problematic as turnto an originalpoint. nor4. Deviance and normalcyare not distinctcategories. We conceptualize coordinatesystem. As a prescribed as a point in a multidimensional guide malcy for conduct, a rule designatesthe limits of space aroundthe point in which a behavioris seen as deviant. behavioris viewed as normal. Outsidethis boundary, Now we can justify using the terms â€Å"rulecreation†and â€Å"deviancedesignation† more or less synonymously. The formerrefersto the boundaryitself, whichmay be thick or fuzzy; the latter refers to the space outside the boundary. Any behavioralboundary,in our view, is subject to cultural,temporal,or situational between factorswhich continuously defineit, or redefineit. Thus is the boundary deviancy and normalcycontinuouslydrawnand redrawn,and a behavioralresituation,but ratherby definitionoccursnot by quantumleaps, as an â€Å"either-or† or pulled througha system of space. In the dialecticalmodel the being pushed as pushesor pulls aremanifested strainor process. and analyticintentions 5. The model is macroscopic. Our conceptualization the collectivelevel. We do not directlyconsider,for example,the are clearly at motivationsof an individualactor or leader. For two reasonswe down-playthe importof, or perhapseven ignore,such questionsas: Did leaderX makedecision or Y sincerelyor cynically? Is he or she a moralentrepreneur a typical (but not concernedsuburbanite? First,we doubt,in social factistlanguage, authoritarian) that such variablesexplainvery much variancein deviancedesignation. The individual,qua individual,role in collective, historicprocessesis always limited. To Our second reasonis methodological: the extentthat psychologicalvariables are important,how are they to be measuredor assessed? For historicalstudies, motivationseems particularly Secondarysources,as well as various problematic. kinds of documents,seem suspecthere. Even in contemporary settings,people’s of their own or others’motivationsare not trustworthy, especiallygiven reports or the vested or strategicinterestswhich can be served by lying, exaggerating, selectivelyforgetting. Rather,we focus on such variablesas strainand resources over time. and which can be operationalized measuredcomparably 6. The dialecticalmodel uses history. The model invites, perhapseven demands, a given rule to be placed in historical context. Moreover the data needed to test the model are historical, preferably in time series, data. The model is shaped by these data and is thus grounded and inductive as Conrad and Schnei- CreatingDeviance Rules 167 der (1980:265) have suggested. In that sense the dialecticalmodel is meant to evaluate,as much as formallytest, historicalsequencesof data. 7. The model is conflictoriented,though not necessarilyMarxist. Many deviance designations,particularlythose formalizedas laws, are amenableto a Marxist analysis consistentwith the model. Large sums of money or other resources are often used by ruling elites for maintenanceof deviance definitions do or, less often, change. However,some deviancedefinitions not seem to fit the Marxistmodel (see Markle and Troyer, 1979, or Hagan and Leon, 1977, for two such case studies). In the dialecticalmodel, vested or other interests(religious, ethnic, sex, status,etc. ) can militatefor, and indeedbe successfulat, creat(uneming new definitionsof deviance. Similarlystrainmightbe substructural strain ployment,new technology,etc. ), but the model allows for superstructural (e. g. , new knowledge). Using the DialecticalModel As an inductivetheory,the true test of the dialecticalmodel is its utility. Let us and suggesta few ways, then, how the model mightbe operationalized used. We in begin with the concept of strain,which can be operationalized severalways. In our own researchon cigarettesmoking(Markleand Troyer,1979) and estrolegen replacements(McCrea and Markle, 1980), strainwas the appearance, or dissemination new knowledge; strainin our researchon Laetrile of gitimation, (Markle and Petersen, 1980) was, among other factors, an increasedconcern over cancer. As new health-related knowledgeclaims, strain can be measured with variousbibliometric techniques. A simple content analysisof relevantarticles, over a period of years, from Index Medicus can be used to chart such knowledgeclaims. The perceivedlegitimacyof such claims can be assessedby the professionalprestige of the author or journal. Finally, the entry of such knowledgeclaims into the public arena can be measuredusing the New York Times Index, which Jenkins and Perrow (1977) found highly effective,or by one of severalnewspaperdata banks (e. g. , Newsbank)now in existence. After looking at strain,it is easy enoughto identifyspecificinterestsinvolved in redefinition. Such organizations groups will have appearedas recipients, or sponsors,aggrievedparties,etc. , in news accountsor scholarlycitation. The resources of these groups can be measuredin severalways. The Encyclopediaof Associations, updated almost yearly, lists purportedmembershipsand other for simple demographics manysuchgroups. Moreover,most interestgroupshave which are usuallyeasy to obtain, often at literatureor even regularpublications no cost. When interests are corporate,much informationon resourcescan be gleaned from annual reports or, with somewhatmore effort, from regulatory In agenciessuch as the Securitiesand ExchangeCommission. ase studieswhere is an interestedparty, vast amounts of official statistics may be government available (see, e. g. , Markle and Troyer, 1979). Moreover,the researchercan use the Freedomof Information Act to obtain a deep windowinto government actions and resourcesin variousdeviancedesignations. Throughpublic records and other availabledata, every conce pt in the dialecticalmodel can be operationalized. Indeed,to measureresourcesin comparable ways, we have suggested of the development a researchprotocol (Markleand Petersen,1981). 168 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY A Final Word iancearecreated changed, beenneglected socialtheory research. and or in has We believethat neglectcomes from theoretical The misdirection. dialectical thesedifficulties. to model,whichis knowledge based,is ourattempt ameliorate Becauseit attempts integrate traditional the theoryinvites to two approaches, both philosophical- empirical-based and criticisms. Thoughwe welcomethe we The in interested thelatter. realtestof thedialectical former, areparticularly modelis whether works. it Andwhether not it workscan onlybe judged or by it holdingit up to the lightof, and adjudicating with,historicaland contemporary A crucialelementof social change and conflict,why and how definitionsof de- research. REFERENCES Barnes, Barry. 1974. ScientificKnowledgeand SociologicalTheory. London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul. 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Report on International Marketing Management-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss why and how Unilever Bangladesh should standardize or adapt its product (Rexona) in the Chinese Market. Answer: Introduction and Background The battle to balance stewardship and economic growth in the global market environment continues. Over the last decade, China has grown to be an excellent destination for international trade(Philip, et al., 2011, p. 8). New communication strategies have helped most companies go global, and this has increased competition for market internationally. Unilever Bangladesh operates globally in more than 100 countries worldwide. Currently, Unilever delivers more than 400 brands to its markets, China being among them. However, as a consultant of Unilever Bangladesh, there is a need to market the Rexona brand to diversify its market in China given that China has a wider market of consumers (Geppert and Dorrenbacher, 2014, p. 240). Since its inception in 1964, Unilever Bangladesh has attracted a diverse range of customers in the whole globe. International marketing faces numerous challenges, and the company must understand them before launching its newly improved product (Rexona) to the Chines e market (www.unilever.com.bd). There are adverse regulations by the China government, stiff competition from other firms and unpredictable economic downturns just to mention a few(Philip, et al., 2011, p. 400). This report follows two components to achieve the set aims. Foreign market entry is enabled through joint ventures, exporting, franchising, licensing, and turnkey projects. As a consultant of Unilever Bangladesh, franchising will be the primary market entry strategy for the company. The report will examine the policy decision of standardizing the Rexona product in the companys franchise in the context of international product management. The study will also review the benefits possible to occur if the standardizing approach is employed about product management models (Khanna and Palepu, 2010, p. 100). Further, the report will evaluate the benefits of the sales force in marketing Unilever Bangladesh Rexona brand to the Chinese market. An evaluation of the benefits of using sales force in communication mix will also get undertaken. Product Standardization and Adaptation With over 50 years of experience in the market, Unilever Bangladesh (FMCG) connects both directly and indirectly to its consumers. Unilever enjoys a worldwide brand recognition, and this acts as the key driver for success in the Chinese market. In the context of international product development, different policy decisions have been considered by the companys consultant. Why Standardization? Standardization involves the setting of same attributes for a particular product, in this case, Rexona. Over the past decade, the debate on whether to adapt or standardize a new product has received significant attention in international marketing (Lee and Lieberman, 2010, p. 150). Standardization is used due to various reasons as explained below: Leads to Production economies: The standardization of Rexona brand by Unilever would result to better planning and control, improved economies of scale, and proper utilization of the sales workforce at the company in its global market being exploited. Reduction of production costs: The entry into the foreign market (Chinese market) by Unilever significantly reduces the company's production costs due to franchising and the use of joint ventures with other firms. Standardization of the Rexona product would help Unilever lower the cost of production hence increasing profitability (De Mooij, 2013, p. 24). Smooth performance monitoring: Expanding the newly Rexona brand that is standardized regarding quality and price by Unilever to the Chinese market would assist in lowering the unit design expenditures hence gaining a competitive edge over the rivals in the international marketing (Navarro et al., 2010, p. 155). In this report, the decision of whether to use standardization or adaptation strategy is influenced by the external (China) market environment. Different issues such as political, economic, cultural, and social impacts on different markets, hence the strategy to adopt by Unilever at the Chinese market. The management of Unilever Bangladesh needs to adopt the standardization strategy in selling its Rexona brand in China. Impact of PESTEL on Unilever Political-legal environment Unilever has established strategies of tackling the potential political and legal issues in the Chinese market. There are legislations by the government that govern business operations in the Chinese market (Yuksel, 2012, p. 52). The company has enhanced prices control land expatriates employment in a manner that complies with China policies. Economic environment Unilevers marketing operations to China depends on Chinas economy. The success of the company in the marketing of Rexona will depend on the economic growth and stability in the country. Further, the rise of peoples wages in China presents an excellent opportunity for Unilever to make more sales hence profitability (Yuksel, 2012, p. 52). Social environment Sociocultural trends impact on Unilevers marketing strategies in the Chinese market. Unilever needs to modify the Rexona before marketing it in the market to ensure that the brand addresses consumer's interests and demands and that it is not against the Chinese culture, beliefs, and norms. Technological environment The success of an MNC depends on the type of technology used in marketing their products to the target market. The rising business automation in the world requires Unilever to use e-commerce in doing its business. Marketing Rexona over the companys website offers the right opportunity for the company to enter the Chinese market (Yuksel, 2012, p. 52). Ecological Environment Ecological trends have an influence on Unilevers remote environment at China. The effects of the natural environment affect the marketing strategies of the company. The increase in environmental programs complexities in China require Unilever to be socially responsible to attract a wider market. Unilever Bangladesh's food and personal care product success in the global market is substantially associated with the standardization strategy used by the management when selling a new product internationally(Philip, et al., 2011, p. 166). Given that consumers in the market demand adjusted and high quality products, Unilever should ensure a sustained standardization of its Rexona brand that is getting marketed to the China market to suit the consumer culture. Why Adaptation? The adaptation strategy refers to the marketing strategy where a company modifies new products. Most multinational corporations (MNCs) adapt their marketing strategies when going global, even at the international arena where diverse brands of goods are universally prevalent (Moore et al., 2010, p. 161). For example, Unilever markets home care products, fast foods, water purifiers, and personal care products. However, this report focuses on Unilevers marketing strategy to win the Chinese market for its newly modified Rexona. Unilever's adaptation decisions when entering the Chinese market would influence its competitive position and performance over its rivals. Some researchers postulate that adaptation approach is more efficient since consumers vary across cultural differences. For instance, China is a country whose cultural diversity is vast. In the choice of export market variables by the management of the company, the market similarity between Bangladesh and China needs priority. The proper planning and firm Rexona adaptation in the Chinese market add strength to its export performance. Porters Five Forces Competitive rivalry Unilever faces stiff competition from Procter Gamble and McDonalds among other players in the industry. In marketing Rexona at China, Unilever should use aggressive price cuts and marketing campaigns to attract more customers. Supplier power As an MNC, Unilever has various suppliers for its raw materials that manufacture Rexona. The company needs to understand market demand in China and choose that supplier who can offer the right quality. Choosing the right supplier helps in delivering the preferred brand quality in the market (Porter, 2008, p. 33). Buyer power Maintaining the Rexona quality is the key determinant of customer attraction and retention by Unilever in China. The company should target reliable and loyal customers whose purchasing power is unquestionable. Unilever's ability to supply Rexona in the market depends on the number of buyers (Porter, 2008, p. 40). Threat of substitution The likelihood of customers finding an alternative company or product would determine the rate of success for Unilever in marketing Rexona to China. However, the marketing of unique and favorable offers by the company automates success, and this hinders people from outsourcing or finding another dealer. Threat of new entry Unilevers position in the Chinese market depends on other MNCs ability to enter the market. Entry of new companies in the market is a threat to Unilevers Rexona brand, hence the company needs to improve and standardize its product feautures in a manner that attracts the target market (Porter, 2008, p. 28). Benefits of Standardization compared to adapting approach Entering the Chinese market with new marketing strategies will help Unilever maximize its profitability. The decision to standardize the Rexona brand by Unilever will offer the company benefits which could not arise given the adaptation approach is preferred. The potential benefits include: Standardization of the Rexona brand would provide Unilever significant cost advantages such as reduced production costs and increased economies of production. The standardization approach allows for the consistent presentation of brand image worldwide hence attracting choice from many customers in the targetted country as compared to the adaptation approach. Unlike adaptation strategy, using standardization strategy to enter global market enables a firm employ similar advertisement techniques, packages, and presentations hence reducing operations costs. The adoption of standardization approach would help Unilever Bangladesh develop unique global marketing strategies that suit the Chinese market. The Rexona Unilever brand image is associated with diversity, dynamism, and active global lifestyle. The decision by Unilever to use adaptation approach in marketing this product might negatively compromise its identity in the Chinese market. High speed is guaranteed in the implementation of standardization strategy by Unilever since the marketing mix is already known to the marketing sales force of the company. How to Standardize or Adapt? Examination of the standardizing and adapting approach Product standardization across different markets has become a significant issue for managers going global to consider. In 2015, Unilever secured a partnership agreement with the Chinese government that enhanced its collaborative marketing strategies of its new products in the market (Schilke et al., 2009, p. 30). This gives Unilever an edge to thrive in the Chinese market given that the Chinese consumers know its products. The knowing of the quality and the price of Rexona products by consumers necessitates the standardization of the newly modified Rexona in an approach to international marketing. On the other hand, product adaptation approach is increasingly becoming an important factor that marketing managers of global companies consider. Perhaps, product adaptation significantly influences multinational corporations foreign market entry marketing programs. Unilever is an MNC, and international marketing is required in an endeavor to aid market penetration of the newly modified Rexona in the Chinese market. While past research argues that standardization enhances performance in the market, today's research recommends a combination of the two strategies. However, the combination of the two options will be costly to Unilever and hence impossible. Therefore, Unilever Bangladesh needs to consider using standardization approach other than adaptation strategy. This is because standardization is a cheaper plan whose marketing fits all cultures in the market. Further, standardization will offer the company large economies of scale in the market. Standardizing the companys marketing mix and strategy would also help the company save marketing costs in promoting the product to the global arena. Further, the firm would have more competitive prices and high quality product brands that suit both the local and worldwide consumer demands. International product management model Unilever Bangladesh's success in marketing the Rexona brand depends on the skills and innovativeness of the product manager. The advanced technology has made international marketing challenging, complex, and competitive. Unilever should adopt an excellent product management model to enhance competitiveness and sustainability in its Chinese market entry plan. The international product management model to get used by Unilever is: Blackblot product management team model Unilever should train its sales force on strategies of implementing marketing plans. The company should focus on the technological challenges that affect their operations and hinder their success in marketing their product to other foreign markets. Blackblots model will help in transforming product modification and enhance Rexona acceptance in China. International product management principals The marketing of Rexona by Unilever in China will be based on the following product management principals: Understanding the target market: The marketing managers of Unilever must understand the market demands and needs before delivering the Rexona brand in the market. Educate consumers on the product use: Through company websites, it is the responsibility of a product manager of Unilever to inform customers on how to use the product. Making it easy for consumers to use the product grants customers loyalty. Sales Force within Marketing Communication Mix Marketing personnel plays a critical role in the marketing communication mix of a company. While international marketing is a significant trend in the modern business world, the right sales force determines the rate of success that a company would have in its foreign market entry strategies. Why is Sales Force Key? MNCs rely on the sales force in their endeavor to go global (Terpstra et al., 2012, p. 45). There is need to support the sales force by giving them sufficient and appropriate resources to market the companys Rexona in the Chinese market. The different sales force has different talents, skills, and abilities to persuade new markets. For example, the introduction of finger-licking good fare by KFC to China was facilitated by its sales force, and this slogan excited the Chinese consumers. In this regard, there are potential underlying benefits of valuing sales force within the marketing mix of Unilever as discussed below: Potential Benefits of Sales Force in International Markets The global marketplace requires highly innovative and creative sales force to explore. Realizing the marketing success by Unilever Bangladesh is determined by the ability and quality of its sales personnel. The sales force needs to understand different cultures and language for the Chinese customers to persuade them easily to buy Unilevers Rexona product (Chung et al., 2012, p. 80). The potential benefits for Unilever from its sales force in entering the Chinese market include: Sales force lead conversions in the foreign markets: The use of Salesforce by Unilever when selling its modified Rexona brand to China would help in bridging the gap between the consumer demands and the quality of product that meets customer needs. Salesforce would help Unilever advertise the Rexona product to the Chinese market and assist in building on the current awareness that the customers have on the product in the market. Potential business growth: Sales force would assist the company to build customers loyalty to the product getting marketed in the market (Rexona). Consumer loyalty and trust on the companys product would help in increasing sales hence strengthening its position in the Chinese market. There is a potential for the trustworthy customers to recommend Unilever to their colleagues through the online webs and business cards offered to them by the sales force. Customer attraction and retention: Personal selling by the sales force of the company plays a critical role in building a brand reputation to the market. Excellent sales personnel of Unilever creates a long lasting impression on the consumer and hence attracting new customers in the Chinese market (Klug, 2006, p. 10). Provided the sales force of the firm offer after sales services to their consumers when they purchase the Rexona brand, this has a potential impact on customer retention and reduces consumer complaints. Product development and features improvement: Sales force, directly and indirectly, impacts on the development of the product (Rexona) features. The interaction of salespeople with the Chinese customers gives them a chance to collect information regarding the modified product. As a result, the sales personnel take these recommendations to the marketing manager of the company which in turn helps Unilever understand the market demand and offer the right standardized product as required by the consumer (Johnston and Marshall, 2016, p. 88). Potential Benefits of Sales Force in Marketing Communication Mix The marketing communication mix involves the product, price, promotion, and the place combination. When entering international markets, most companies use the components of marketing and communication mix (promotional mix). Unilever's attempt to enter the Chinese market in the commercialization of its Rexona brand requires the use of advertising, public relations, personal selling, and sales promotions. Brand positioning in the international marketing requires proper understanding of the target audience by the company (Jackson and Sorensen, 2015, p. 99). Unilever must involve the 4P's i.e. product, price, place, and promotion when marketing the Rexona product in the Chinese market. However, the last P of the marketing mix- Promotion requires proper coordination and right sales force to connect to the targeted market effectively (Hutt and Speh, 2005, p. 68). The use of the marketing and communication mix when marketing its Rexona products in the global market gives Unilever potential benefits of growth as discussed in every mix below: Sales promotion: The primary role of the sales force in a company is sales promotion. The sales people of Unilever should make the use of premiums, contests, and coupons in the China market and this offers the company potential to attract attention, dramatize offers, stimulate consumer response, provide excellent buying incentives, and boost sagging sales (Ernst et al., 2010, p. 90). The use of sales people in sales promotion is relevant to Unilever when entering the market. With licensing to operate in China, the company has a potential to enhance Rexona brand preferences in the market hence gain a competitive edge. Public relations: The exporting and foreign direct investment (FDI) foreign market entry strategies require public relations back up for a company to thrive in the Chinese market. Sales persons ability to relate well with the target audience will offer the business highly credible and believable sales for its brand. Using sales force would assist Unilever to reach many prospects via other promotional forms at a cheaper expense (De Mooij, 2010, p. 80). Further, public relations offers the sales people many ways of exploiting the newly identified China market through the review of new product features, global news stories on the brand, and sponsorship events. Direct marketing: The use of highly skilled and talented sales force by the company will help Unilever undertake online marketing of Rexona, direct emailing to the acquired clients, and in conducting telephone marketing. Sales forces have the ability to understand customers mood through their interactions experienced in other global markets. Whenever this is a challenge to the company, there is an opportunity to consider sending messages to retailers with special orders (Buckley and Casson, 2010, p. 150). Online and print surveys undertaken by the sales force helps the company in understanding market trends. How is Sales Force Management Key? Foreign market entry requires proper sales force management by the company. The sales force is the most important asset in an organization in its attempt to sell a new product in a foreign market. Sales personnel research and innovate new marketing techniques that help a company enter and thrive in the international market (Terpstra et al., 2012, p. 44). In particular, Unilever's success in entering the Chinese market depends on the firm's ability to manage its sales people. Unilever is focused on managing the talents, culture, skills, and behaviors of its sales force. The first stage of foreign market entry is marketing the product, and this is the key role for sales force in the firm (Craig and Douglas, 2005, p. 100). There is a potential return on investment from the efforts employed by the sales personnel in marketing the Rexona brand to the Chinese market. This necessitates the company to offer a conducive environment and adequate resources to the sales people to enable them to win more markets. The proper sales force management by the company improves their morale and commitment to market the Rexona product in the market. Sales people have a direct relationship with the target audience, and this offers them a perfect opportunity to understand what the market demands before embarking on the venture (Blocker et al., 2012, p. 20). Sales people play a critical role in setting the price for the product since they are the ones distributing samples to the consumers. Unilever must understand that sales people help in optimizing product distribution to the Chinese market and that valuing their input ideas contributes directly to the diversified market and product acceptance in the market. Sales force implementation plan For the sales force to be effective, a well detailted plan of how it will be implemented should be provided. The first step should be planning the integration. This will be possible by definining the objectives that need to be achieved. Recruiting the best person to lead this task force and outlining the tasks tp be performed by the sales force will help in having effective sales force (Mantrala , Raman, 2013). Educating the team will be next step. In this step, the manager should dedicate his/her time on educating the team on what need to be done so as to perform their duties well. The vision and objectives of the team should also be well communicated. The manager also needs to train the sales force so that they can gain all the skills needed for perforance of their tasks. The third step of the implementaion plan should be preparing the data. The manager should clean the data and ensure it is up to date to avoid facing obstacles that related to data that may hinder them from fulfilling their tasks. Determine which data to be to be given to the task force so as to ensure delicate and confidential data is not given to the wrong personell (Johnston, Marshall, 2016). The fourth step will involve transfering data. In this case data will be transferd from the previous marketing platform to the new marketing platform which is sales force. This will involve preparing reports of the movement of the data. It will also involve evaluating the setting to ensure that the data is well configured so as to ensure its security. Tracking the progress of the plan will be the fifth step. In this step, the manager wants to ensure that every activity is happening according to the plan. This stage requires alot of feedback from the involved stakeholders. The sixth and last step will be to update and communicate to the to the task force( Buttle, Ang, Iriana, 2010). From the feedback provided in the previous step, the sales force team should be updated on what changes need to be done. This will help to correct the deviations encountered so that the plan can work well and achieve the desired goals and objectives. Conclusion The main aim of this report was investigating the extent over which multinational corporations (MNCs) standardize or adapt a product brand when going global. The study selected Unilever Bangladeshs (FMCG) Rexona product to advise the company on why and how to market the modified brand to the Chinese market. In order to fulfill the objectives of the report, the extent of which Unilever can adapt or standardize its Rexona brand, and the importance of sales force in the marketing of the product at the global market has been discussed. The study concludes that Unilever should standardize its product when marketing it internationally, in particular to China given its immense benefits, unlike the adaption strategy. Further, the report concludes that Unilever should value the input of its sales force when marketing the new product in the international market since this plays a critical role in product success and sales growth in the global market. 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