Taking a Little Break from LinkedIn - A Wedding Roast for Mom

Taking a Little Break from LinkedIn - A Wedding Roast for Mom My family has a long history of composing verses for each enormous family occasion, to the tune of Woody Guthrie’s â€Å"Hey Lolly.† Hey Lolly comprises of rhyming lines, with â€Å"Hey lolly lo† sung after each line and a more extended hold back sung after each area. The activity (or delight, should I say?) of composing these dishes utilized be possessed by my imaginatively skilled father. Since his passing 20 years back, I’ve carried on the convention in my own particular manner. I composed melodies for my two nephews when they were Bar Mitzvah’ed (one to the tune of â€Å"The Rainbow Connection,† and the other to Pharrell’s â€Å"Happy†). I’ve composed wedding broils for different companions, as well. Up to this point, never a Hey Lolly. Be that as it may, at that point my 75-year-old mother persuaded connected with to be hitched, and the time had come. A couple of months prior, I began considering all that I thought about my mother and her fiancã ©, asking them slippery inquiries, and placing the best bits into rhyming couplets-which my family and I conveyed last Saturday at her wedding. It will support you, as you read, to know a couple of things: My father went to Yale and went to pretty much every Yale-Harvard Game that was facilitated at Yale. My sister and her better half consolidated their names when they were hitched, to â€Å"Gostein.† My mother drinks fermented tea like it’s water, and it’s not uncommon to locate a whole shelfful of the stuff in her refrigerator. The wedding occurred in Austin, TX, where my mother moved to join my sister quite a long while back. The wedding had a cattle rustler topic and the admission was Texas grill. Presently envision that my family and I are in front of an audience confronting a crowd of people of 200+ visitors, with my mother and her fiancã © in halfway found seats confronting the stage. My nephew is on the piano and every one of all of us is singing a section that were properly doled out. I trust you appreciate! Hello Lolly for Marcia and Arnold †March 25, 2017 We assemble here with euphoria and chuckling To celebrate perpetually after Arnold, Marcia, presently it’s time To cook you with a little rhyme. Hello LOLLY Arnold Lo †o †pez Cepero Is our tale’s swashbuckling saint Furthermore, Marcia Bernstein is our sovereign Or then again would it be advisable for us to call you Marcia Lopestein? Hello LOLLY Arnold ‘fore he met his new beauty Spent numerous hours playing Free Cell, Enthusiastic ‘bout his outings to India, Head topped off with heaps of trivia†¦ He gets a kick out of the chance to concentrate everything curious Particularly the astrophysical. Marcia went through her hours singing Also, embraces to her grandkids bringing She constructed a real existence she adored in Austin, With family, companions, and sanctuary hurled in. Also, what would you be able to rely on to satisfy her? Fermented tea in the ‘frigerator. Hello LOLLY Both lady of the hour and man of the hour had astonishing existences, In any case, something needed on their inner parts In both their hearts there was a natural hollow Thus each made a beeline for a bar. ‘Twas ‘round the center of November A day we generally will recall Marcia got a hunch and came To watch the Yale Harvard Game Arnold showed up as well and met A woman he would n’er overlook That day this couple’s destiny was fixed While Ivies combat on the field. It’s peculiar that game was so much fun†¦ ‘Cuz Yale lost†¦ however these two won! One issue †Arnold had no number He couldn’t call her †what a goof! Be that as it may, at long last his Yalie smarts Discovered an approach to Marcia’s heart. Hello LOLLY Two or more years have passed and now Each has made a steadfast promise, He puts sushi on her plate, Furthermore, frequently keeps her up past the point of no return, She has checked his too-sweet tooth, What's more, carried him to the wellspring of youth. They’ve ventured out to intriguing grounds, Also, consistently return clasping hands Masada brought them hallowed gift Only one stage toward their cowhand wedding. Let’s wish them delight that floods, Also, love that develops and develops and develops. Hello LOLLY Along these lines, that is the thing that The Essay Expert does when I’m not expounding on LinkedIn, resumes, or large life exercises. I could think of one of these for anybody in the event that I were given enough material, so let me know whether you might want to enroll my help. I’d love to get the opportunity to utilize this distinctive piece of my cerebrum all the more frequently. I’d additionally love to hear your preferred stories and customs for weddings and other family occasions. If it's not too much trouble share in the remarks! Spare Spare Spare Category:Life and LeadershipBy Brenda BernsteinMarch 27, 2017 1 Comment Liz Lynn says: Walk 28, 2017 at 5:06 pm Mazel tov to every one of you!!! So ideal to have uplifting news! Sign in to Reply

Legalizing Marijuana Essay -- Drugs Weed Legal Argumentative Essays

Sanctioning Marijuana Medications are a significant persuasive power in our nation today. The issue has gotten so insane that numerous alternatives are being considered to control it or even comprehend it. Closure the medication war is by all accounts somewhat incomprehensible. The war on drugs is by all accounts achieving a great deal yet this isn't accurate. Various choices should be thought of. Legitimization is a choice that hasn't gotten an opportunity however ought to be given one. Albeit numerous individuals feel that authorizing maryjane would build the measure of utilization, cannabis ought to be legitimized in light of the fact that it will decrease the incredible measures of cash spent on requirement and it will expand our country’s income. There are additionally numerous advantages that can be revealed to help individuals if legitimization of cannabis is given an opportunity. Legitimizing weed would expand our economy's income. During Prohibition liquor utilize was as yet sold and utilized, yet individuals were doing it unlawfully. The 21st amendment revoked restriction and liquor charges were expanded. Something very similar ought to occur with drugs. Cannabis ought to be burdened vigorously to build our income. Pot and different medications would be made by similar individuals who make headache medicine so the quality would be guaranteed, containing no toxic substances or adulterants. Clean hypodermic needles will be promptly accessible at corner medicate stores. These could be burdened vigorously in light of the fact that the clients will be guaranteed of clean medications. Making drugs lawful will decrease the extraordinary measures of cash went through on authorization consistently. Street pharmacists and clients are one stride ahead on the authorization procedure. In the event that one medication ruler is gotten, another will show up elsewhere. We c an't win. â€Å"In 1987, 10 billion dollars were burned through alone just on upholding drug laws. Medications represented around 40... ...on the sum spent on law authorization endeavors to capture and indict clients and venders of weed. The medication authorization specialists may lessen their spending solicitations, or, almost certain, attention all the more seriously on hard medications and fierce violations. The courts would be eased of hearing some medication cases, also. The most significant addition would be in the nature of government. The sorts of allurements and openings that lead to debasement would be altogether limited. The outlandish example of law authorization, which currently regards cannabis as increasingly risky as liquor, would end. It would set increasingly attainable objectives for law authorization, and this would loan quality and believability to the administration. In the exposition â€Å"drugs,† Vidal states, â€Å"It is conceivable to stop most illicit drug use in the United States inside an exceptionally brief timeframe, Simply make all medications accessible.

The Case of the Omniscient Organization

Case Analysis: The Case of the Omniscient Organization Introduction For this situation study, Dominion-Swann (DS) has executed a â€Å"radical rebuilding of the work environment† so as to recover control of its representatives. By 1990, DS had been experiencing various business troubles. It was not staying up with its opposition, representative turnover had expanded considerably, wellbeing expenses and business related mishaps were rising, and worker burglary was at a record-breaking high. Rather than recognizing and tending to the basic business and the board issues, DS chose to get the manifestations by turning SciexPlan Inc. o help profoundly rebuild the workplace using representative checking innovation. Foundation DS has advocated its workplace rebuilding dependent on past disappointments as opposed to future objectives for progress. The organization has made a framework to assemble a far reaching database of data on each representative. DS likewise screens its workers in all parts of their activity, exposing them to steady assessment and efficiency tests. The monstrous measure of data gathered on every worker should permit DS to impartially oversee faculty and make work assignments that give the best effectiveness. Rather, DS has made an unoriginal observing, observation, and discovery framework intended to lay snares for representatives and shape their conduct with no administrative exertion. Issue Statement Has DS gotten so overcome with its â€Å"radical rebuilding of the work environment† that it has organized innovation and power over the government assistance, innovativeness, and efficiency of its kin? Investigation and Issues Digital innovation has had an irrefutably significant effect, both positive and negative, on the working environment. At the point when actualized appropriately, the advantages of this effect can incorporate expanded profitability, improved security, better working onditions, and upgraded correspondences between representatives, the board, and clients. Be that as it may, an exceedingly fanatical worker observing framework will make repetitive and upsetting working conditions, loss of representative protection, and dread which will bring about decreased degree s of innovativeness and profitability. By executing an excessively enthusiastic framework for worker checking, DS is fundamentally exasperating the pressure that exists between reconnaissance innovation and representative security concerns. DS needs to screen workers so as to compensate exertion, information, profitability, and achievement while disposing of inertness, numbness, burglary, and disappointment. Rather, it is treating its laborers like bits of hardware as opposed to one of a kind and significant people. DS has essentially changed the work environment into a widely inclusive electronic jail where about each part of a worker's conduct is checked. The DS chiefs who screen each move that representatives make are achieving proficiency destinations at a sizeable expense. Observing and observation can make a high pressure condition for representatives that can prompt physiological and mental pressure related sicknesses. Undercover observation at DS will sit idle yet increment fears, nerves, and doubt among representatives. The indifferent part of innovative reconnaissance reduces employees’ ideas of their worth, commitment, and self-esteem. The widely inclusive reconnaissance executed by DS will demolish any expectation for workers to settle on choices and act independently. Self-governance is a basic part to hands on freedom that expands specialist confidence. In spite of the fact that DS has legitimization for some measure of worker observing so as to effectively assess representative execution, it has taken representative reconnaissance to where it will unfavorably influence profitability. At the point when representatives don't feel that they are believed, their longing to perform well is decreased. The representative screening process DS has actualized raises extra security concerns. Any examination of worker exercises and history outside of the working environment is an amazingly touchy and possibly belligerent issue. DS is possibly supported in barging in into its employees’ individual lives when it includes wrongdoing or criminal behavior. Off the clock direct might be pertinent to business if the unfortunate behavior adversely impacts the worker's work execution or the organization's crucial. Be that as it may, the deliberate checking utilized by DS raises genuine security concerns. Checking all employees’ exercises, as opposed to simply the exercises of representatives under doubt of explicit unfortunate behavior, establishes a sweeping inquiry that brings tremendous protection concerns. Proposals DS would be in an ideal situation with no worker observing as opposed to examining its all representatives' moves. When the representative observing makes a spirit issue, the entirety of the worth it has made will be decreased. In the event that DS is to proceed with representative checking frameworks, it must make and plainly convey an observing approach for workers. DS needs to begin with human-arranged strategies, at that point use innovation to uphold them. As it stands at this moment, DS is applying an excess of intensity in its attack of representative security in the work environment. DS is abusing the absence of guideline around there so as to actualize incredibly obtrusive techniques for representative observation. Until representatives are ensured by guideline to secure their privileges to protection in the working environment, DS ought to accept accountability to self direct by restricting the measure of reconnaissance, actualizing it just when it makes explicit objectives for progress. Checking ought to be led uniquely for business purposes, and this must be conveyed to the workers. So as to reduce its worker checking framework to a sensible level, DS should survey and apply the recommended rights given by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). To build up a sensible approach and forestall mishandles, DS ought to receive a human-situated arrangement that incorporates the accompanying features:â * notice to representatives of the organization's electronic observing practices;â â â â â â â * utilization of a sign to tell a worker when the individual in question is being monitored;â â â â â â â * representative access to all close to home electronic information gathered through monitoring;â â â â â â â * no checking of regions intended for the wellbeing or solace of employees;â â â â â â â * the option to debate and erase erroneous information; a prohibition on the assortment of information disconnected to work execution; * limitations on the revelation of individual information to others without the worker's assent (American Civil Liberties Union, 1997). DS ought to likewise think about whether observing is really vital for execution assessments. DS doesn't have to watch an employee’s each transition to have the option to pass judgment on the nature of their work. Execution observing ought to be far to a lesser extent a worry than an employee’s capacity to finish errands and reliably comply with time constraints. DS ought to include its workers on the choices with respect to when, how and why electronic observing needs to happens. Above all of all, DS must permit representatives to review, challenge, and, when fundamental, right the information accumulated about them or their exhibition. End/Summary DS must find some kind of harmony between its business advantages and its employees’ security interests. This equalization ought to take into account observation under certain restricted conditions, and use less meddling methodologies. Despite the fact that it is impossible that DS would totally cease its observing practice, at any rate DS should keep on completely advise its representatives pretty much all observation instruments being utilized in their working environment and gave them clear data regarding what the board does with the information. References Pedeliski, Theodore B. (1997). Protection and the work environment: Technology and open business. Open Personnel Management. December 22, 1997. Shoppes, Mia. (2003). Worker checking: Is older sibling an impractical notion. Data Security Magazine. Dec. 9, 2003. American Civil Liberties Union. (1997). Security in America: Electronic checking. Recovered from http://www. aclu. organization/innovation and-freedom/security america-electronic-checking

A Timeline and History of the Olmec Civilization

A Timeline and History of the Olmec Civilization Olmec: An Introduction The Olmec human advancement is the name given to a refined focal American culture with its prime somewhere in the range of 1200 and 400 BC. The Olmec heartland lies in the Mexican conditions of Veracruz and Tabasco, at the limited piece of Mexico west of the Yucatan promontory and east of Oaxaca. Coming up next is an early on manual for the Olmec human advancement, its place in Central American ancient times, and some significant realities about the individuals and how they lived. Olmec Timeline Starting Formative: 1775-1500 cal BCEarly Formative: 1450-1005 cal BCMiddle Formative: 1005-400 cal BCLate Formative: 400 cal BC While the most punctual locales of the Olmec show generally straightforward libertarian social orders dependent on chasing and angling, the Olmecs in the long run built up an exceptionally mind boggling level of political government, including open structure activities, for example, pyramids and huge stage hills; farming; a composing framework; and a trademark sculptural imaginativeness incorporating gigantic stone heads with overwhelming highlights suggestive of irate children. Olmec Capitals There are four primary districts or zones that have been related with Olmec by the utilization of iconography, design and settlement plan, including San Lorenzo de Tenochtitlan, La Venta, Tres Zapotes, and Laguna de los Cerros. Inside every one of these zones, there were three or four unique degrees of villages of various sizes. At the focal point of the zone was a genuinely thick focus with squares andâ pyramidsâ and royal living arrangements. Outside of the inside were a to some degree sparser assortment of villages and farmsteads, each in any event financially and socially attached to the middle. Olmec Kings and Rituals In spite of the fact that we dont know any of the Olmec lord names, we do realize that the ceremonies related with ruler remembered an accentuation for the sun and reference to sun based equinoxes were incorporated with stage and court designs. Sun glyph iconography is seen on numerous areas and there is an evident significance ofâ sunflowerâ in dietary and ceremonial settings. The ballgame assumed a significant job in Olmec culture, as it does in numerous focal American social orders, and, similar to those different social orders, it might have included human penance. The titanic heads are frequently etched with headgear, thought to speak to competitor wear; creature representations exist of panthers dressed as athletes. It is conceivable that ladies likewise played in the games, as there are dolls from La Ventaâ which are females wearing head protectors. Olmec Landscape The Olmec ranches and villages and focuses were arranged on and close to a different arrangement of landforms, including floodplain swamps, waterfront fields, level uplands, and volcanic good countries. In any case, the huge Olmec capitals depended on high places in theâ floodplainsâ of large waterways, for example, Coatzacoalcos and Tabasco. The Olmec adapted to repeating floods by building their homes and capacity structures on misleadingly raised earth stages, or by remaking on old locales, making tell developments. A significant number of the soonest Olmec locales are likely covered profound inside the floodplains. The Olmec were plainly inspired by shading and shading plans of the earth. For instance, the square at La Ventaâ has a striking appearance of earthy colored soil inserted with little bits of broke greenstone. Furthermore, there are a few blue-green serpentine mosaic asphalts tiled with dirts and sands in a rainbow of various hues. A typical conciliatory article was a jadeite offering secured with redâ cinnabar. Olmec Diet and Subsistence By 5000 BC, the Olmec depended onâ domestic maize,â sunflower, and manioc, later domesticatingâ beans. They additionally accumulated corozo palm nuts, squash, andâ chili. There is some likelihood that the Olmec were the first to useâ chocolate. The fundamental wellspring of creature protein was domesticatedâ dogâ but that was enhanced with white-followed deer, transient winged animals, fish, turtles, and beach front shellfish. White followed deer, specifically, was explicitly connected with custom devouring. Consecrated places: Caves (Juxtlahuaca and Oxtotitln), springs, and mountains. Destinations: El Manati, Takalik Abaj, Pijijiapan. Human Sacrifice: Children and newborn children at El Manati; human stays under landmarks at San Lorenzo; La Ventaâ has a raised area demonstrating a falcon clad ruler holding a hostage. Phlebotomy, custom cutting of some portion of the body to permit seeping for penance, was most likely likewise rehearsed. Giant Heads: Appear to be pictures of male (and perhaps female) Olmec rulers. Here and there wear caps demonstrating that they are ballplayers, dolls, and model from La Ventaâ show that ladies wore protective cap headgear, and a portion of the heads may speak to ladies. An alleviation at the Pijijiapan too as La Venta Stela 5 and La Venta Offering 4 show ladies remaining close to men rulers, maybe as accomplices. Olmec Trade, Exchange, and Communications Exchange: Exotic materials were gotten or exchanged from far spots toâ the Olmecâ zones, including truly huge amounts of volcanic basalt to San Lorenzoâ from the Tuxtla mountains, 60 km away, which was cut into imperial models andâ manosâ and metates, common basalt segments from Roca Partida. Greenstone (jadeite, serpentine, schist, gneiss, green quartz), assumed a plainly significant job in world class settings at Olmec locales. A few hotspots for these materials are the bay beach front area in Motagua Valley, Guatemala, 1000 km away from the Olmec heartland. These materials were cut into dots and creature models. Obsidianâ was got from Puebla, 300 km from San Lorenzo. And furthermore, Pachuca green obsidian from focal Mexico Writing: The soonest Olmec composing started with glyphs speaking to calendrical occasions, and in the end developed into logographs, line drawings for single thoughts. The most punctual proto-glyph so far is an Early Formative greenstone cutting of an impression from El Manati. A similar sign appears on a Middle Formative landmark 13 at La Ventaâ next to a striding figure. The Cascajal blockâ shows numerous early glyph structures. The Olmec structured a print machine of sorts, a roller stamp or chamber seal, which could be inked and moved onto human skin, paper, or fabric. Calendar:â 260 days, 13 numbers and 20 named days. Olmec Sites La Venta, Tres Zapotes, San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, Tenango del Valle, San Lorenzo, Laguna de los Cerros, Puerto Escondido, San Andres, Tlatilco, El Manati, Juxtlahuaca Cave, Oxtotitln Cave, Takalik Abaj, Pijijiapan, Tenochtitlan, Potrero Nuevo, Loma del Zapote, El Remolinoâ and Paso los Ortices, El Manatã ­, Teopantecuanitln, Rã ­o Pesquero, Takalik Abaj Olmec Civilization Issues The Olmec Civilization is at the focal point of theâ mother-sister contention, which is a discussion concerning the general quality of the Olmec society contrasted with other early Mesoamerican cultures.The Cascajal Block, a huge square found in a quarry that might be among the most punctual put down accounts in focal America, andThe search forâ bitumenâ sources, which was a significant asset to numerous archeological social orders in focal America. Olmec phlebotomy spoonsâ have another clarification these daysWas chocolate first utilized and trained by the Olmec? Sources Blomster JP, Neff H, and Glascock, MD. 2005 Olmec Pottery Production and Export in Ancient Mexico Determined Through Elemental Analysis. Science 307:1068-1072.Diehl RA. 2005 Patterns of Cultural Primacy. Science 307:1055-1056.Flannery KV, Balkansky AK, Feinman GM, Grove DC, Marcus J, Redmond EM, Reynolds RG, Sharer RJ, Spencer CS, and Yaeger J. 2005. Ramifications of new petrographic investigation for the Olmec ‘‘mother culture’’ model. Procedures of the National Academy of Sciences 102(32):11219-11223.Follensbee BJA. 2008. Fiber innovation and weaving in developmental period Gulf Coast societies. Old Mesoamerica 19:87â€110.Henderson JS, Joyce RA, Hall GR, Hurst WJ, and McGovern PE. 2007. Concoction and archeological proof for the soonest cacao refreshments. Procedures of the National Academy of Sciences 104(48):18937-18940. Joyce RA, and Henderson JS. 2007. From devouring to food: Implications of archeological research in an early Honduran town . American Anthropologist 109(4):642â€653. Joyce RA, and Henderson JS. 2010. Being Olmec in Early Formative Period Honduras. Antiquated Mesoamerica 21(1):187-200.Kaufman T, and Justeson J. 2007. Composing the historical backdrop of the word for cacao in antiquated Mesoamerica. Old Mesoamerica 18:193-237.Pohl MD, and von Nagy C. 2008. The Olmec and their peers. In: Pearsall DM, supervisor. Reference book of Archeology. London: Elsevier Inc. p 217-230.Rodrà ­guez Martã ­nez MdC, Ortã ­z Ceballos P, Coe MD, Diehl RA, Houston SD, Taube KA, and Alfredo DC. 2006. Most seasoned Writing in the New World. Science 313:1610-1614. Sharer RJ, Balkansky AK, Burton JH, Feinman GM, Flannery KV, Grove DC, Marcus J, Moyle RG, Price TD, Redmond EM et al. 2006. On The Logic Of Archeological Inference: Early Formative Pottery And The Evolution Of Mesoamerican Societies. Latin American Antiquity 17(1):90-103.Wendt CJ, and Ciphers A. 2008. How the Olmec utilized bitumen in old Mesoamerica. Diary of Anthropological Archeology 27(2):175-191.Wend t CJ, and Lu S-T. 2006. Sourcing archeological bitumen in the Olmec district. Diary of Archeological Science 33(1):89-97.

Writing is Magic

Writing is Magic I have a personal blog that I write about my teenagers and I haven’t updated it lately. It’s not because I’m tired of writing- I’m not. And it certainly isn’t because of a lack of material. I have more material than ever lately with one kid on his way to college and the other on his way to a special arts program for his junior year. It’s because writing is hard. Some of you brilliant prospective MIT students know exactly what I mean. Writing well often means “being in the flow” and if you are not there, it’s kind of like plodding uphill knee-deep in mud on a hot humid day. Who wants to do that? When I do an info session for prospective students, I like to mention that there is a writing requirement here at MIT. To some of you, I know, that is not good news. But hopefully most of you already know how valuable it can be to learn to write and express yourself this way. My son has a pile of graduation thank you notes to write and I already know why he isn’t getting to them. He isn’t sure how to start. I have the same feeling when I look at my personal blog and realize it’s been months now without a new post. Where to begin again? But here is some advice for those of you worried about writing, or worried about writing your application essays this fall, or worried about writing a paper in college. (Yes, you will have to write at MIT even if you are a math and physics lover and were hoping to never experience that particular agony of the blank page ever again.) I have some good news. Writing is magic. Take a look at what one member of the MIT faculty, Nick Montfort, has done by merging his interests in puzzles and computer games with poetry. Think you don’t have a single idea, nothing to say? Just start writing. The process of writing is what creates the ideas. Sure, it’s ok to start with a few in your head and see what happens to them as you begin. But if you start with a blank mind, just the act of writing anything will get them to come. In my writing group we do an exercise when we all first assemble together. Before the socializing and advice sharing gets underway, we write. We put pen to paper the old fashioned way for 15 minutes. We might get a subject prompt, a first line of inspiration, or the suggestion of setting or theme, but the one rule is to create something with a beginning, a middle, and an end before the 15 minutes is up. True, sometimes you don’t create a masterpiece you wish to read aloud, but most of the time you are amazed to see that you have a written a story, an essay, or a finished poem. Most of the time, it’s actually something you can be proud of too, and in 15 minutes, really. It happens all the time.

admission essay on urban education - 550 Words

admission essay on urban education (Admission Essay Sample) Content: Living in Los Angeles, I have witnessed firsthand the challenges the cornucopia of ethnicities, races, religions and cultures brings. While the dissimilarities in financial, linguistic, accessibility and social conditions can be demanding, they also expose one to new issues and ideas that were unrealized before. The differences also challenge us to search for innovative and effective solutions for complex educational and social issues. Urban education is ever-changing and continuous, with equal parts challenges and opportunities respectively. Each demographic, social, psychological and financial characteristic of an urban setting is a challenge that needs to be overcome, as well as an opportunity that provides diverse views and ideas for problems. Most importantly, it provides excellent research opportunities as it has such a vast number of test subjects and groups. Test samples can include local, national, and international groupings based on the type and size of research or study. Coming from a traditional Chinese background and as someone who has recently migrated to the United States, I am particularly concerned about the generation and cultural gap between first-generation foreign immigrants in America and their children who were born here. While the immigrants are facing a hard time adjusting to the American way of life and accepting the cultural differences, their American-born children have completely adopted the western lifestyle and mindset, and cannot relate to the original Chinese mentality. This causes constant friction between parents and children, putting a strain on their relationship. As a change agent, I would like to utilize my skills and knowledge that I acquire from my graduate education and training to counsel both groups, helping them understand and respect each otherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ways of thinking. Considering the economic variances and especially the number of low-income immigrant families trying to settle and make ends meet in America, I aspire to make counseling services affordable and more accessible for them. I would like to introduce them and explain to them the conce...

Death Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller - 1573 Words

It is known that in literature, a tragedy is one of the most popular genres. It always combines some story which discusses human sufferings with a certain sense of audience fulfillment. The roots of the tragedy are related to ancient Greece. A Greek tragedy is a sad story, which represents a character with a tragic flaw leading to his downfall. In addition, in traditional tragedy, the main character falls from high authority and often it is predetermined by fate, while the audience experiences catharsis (Bloom 2). Arthur Miller’s play Death of a Salesman is considered to be a tragedy because this literary work has some of the main characteristics of the tragedy genre. In this play, the main character Willy Loman possesses such traits and behaviors that lead to his downfall, and the audience experiences catharsis. Willy Loman as a real tragic hero comes to the decision to commit suicide because of serious financial problems of his family (Phelps 79). This play has already been criticized by a number of literary critics who represented different opinions on the plot of the book. The major goal of this paper is to critically evaluate the play Death of a Salesman written by the well-known American writer Arthur Miller, paying special attention to the play’s characteristics of a tragedy. In the play Death of a Salesman, the author investigates human nature and represents his main character as a person whose dissatisfaction with his own life leads to his tragic end. The plot ofShow MoreRelatedDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller1387 Words   |  6 PagesAmerican play-write Arthur Miller, is undoubtedly Death of a Salesman. Arthur Miller wrote Death of a Salesman in 1949 at the time when America was evolving into an economic powerhouse. Arthur Miller critiques the system of capitalism and he also tells of the reality of the American Dream. Not only does he do these things, but he brings to light the idea of the dysfunctional family. Death of a Salesman is one of America’s saddest tragedies. In Arthur Miller’s, Death of a Salesman, three major eventsRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller888 Words   |  4 PagesDeath of a Salesman† is a play written by Arthur Miller in the year 1949. The play revolves around a desperate salesman, Willy Loman . Loman is delusioned and most of the things he does make him to appear as a man who is living in his own world away from other people. He is disturbed by the fact that he cannot let go his former self. His wife Linda is sad and lonely; his youngest son Biff is presented as a swinger/player while his eldest son Happy appears anti-business and confused by the behaviorRead MoreDeath of Salesman by Arthur Miller972 Words   |  4 PagesIn the play Death of a Salesman by the playwright Arthur Miller, the use of names is significant to the characters themselves. Many playwrights and authors use names in their works to make a connection between the reader and the main idea of their work. Arthur Miller uses names in this play extraordinarily. Not only does Miller use the names to get readers to correlate them with the main idea of the play, but he also uses names to provide some irony to the play. Miller uses the meanings of someRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller1628 Words   |  7 PagesArthur Miller wrote the Pulitzer Prize winning play Death of a Salesman in 1949. The play inflated the myth of the American Dream of prosperity and recognition, that hard work and integrity brings, but the play compels the world to see the ugly truth that capitalism and the materialistic world distort honesty and moral ethics. The play is a guide toward contemporary themes foreseen of the twentieth century, which are veiled with greed, power, and betrayal. Miller’s influence with the play spreadRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller949 Words   |  4 PagesDeath of a Salesman can be described as modern tragedy portraying the remaining days in the life of Willy Loman. This story is very complex, not only because of it’s use of past and present, but because of Willy’s lies that have continued to spiral out of control throughout his life. Arthur Miller puts a modern twist on Aristotle’s definition of ancient Greek tragedy when Willy Loman’s life story directly identifies the fatal flaw of the â€Å"American Dream†. Willy Loman’s tragic flaw can be recappedRead MoreThe Death Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller846 Words   |  4 PagesA Dime a Dozen The Death of a Salesman is a tragedy written by playwright Arthur Miller and told in the third person limited view. The play involves four main characters, Biff, Happy, Linda, and Willy Loman, an ordinary family trying to live the American Dream. Throughout the play however, the family begins to show that through their endeavors to live the American Dream, they are only hurting their selves. The play begins by hinting at Willy’s suicidal attempts as the play begins with Linda askingRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller Essay2538 Words   |  11 PagesSurname 1 McCain Student’s Name: Instructor’s Name: Course: Date: Death of a Salesman Death of a salesman is a literature play written by American author Arthur Miller. The play was first published in the year 1949 and premiered on Broadway in the same year. Since then, it has had several performances. It has also received a lot of accordances and won numerous awards for its literature merit including the coveted Pulitzer for drama. The play is regarded by many critics as the perfectRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller2081 Words   |  9 Pages#1 â€Å"Death of a Salesman† by Arthur Miller is a tragedy, this play has only two acts and does not include scenes in the acts. Instead of cutting from scene to scene, there is a description of how the lighting focuses on a different place or time-period, which from there, they continue on in a different setting. The play doesn’t go in chronological order. A lot of the play is present in Willy’s flashbacks or memories of events. This provides an explanation of why the characters are acting a certainRead MoreDeath Of Salesman By Arthur Miller1475 Words   |  6 Pagesto death to achieve their so- called American dream. They live alone and there is no love of parents and siblings. They may have not noticed the America dream costs them so much, which will cause a bigger regret later. In the play Death of Salesman, Arthur Miller brings a great story of a man who is at very older age and still works hard to achieve his desire, which is the American dream. Later, he no tices that his youth is gone and there is less energy in his body. Willy Loman is a salesman, whoRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller1517 Words   |  7 PagesArthur Miller’s play titled â€Å"Death of a Salesman† offers a plethora of morals pertaining to the human condition. One moral, shown in Aesop’s fable â€Å"The Peacock and Juno†, pertains to that one should be content with that of which they are given, for one cannot be the best at everything. In Death of a Salesman there is, without a doubt, a paucity of content and happiness within the Loman family. But what does it mean to truly be content? Aesop’s fable â€Å"The Peacock and Juno†, as the name suggests,

Coffee And Its Effects On Health - 1383 Words

Introduction: The coffee bean is one of the big sources of caffeine and coffee is the most famous beverage all around the world. Coffee plants are now cultivated in over seventy countries such as Asia, India, and Africa. In 2013/14 Brazil as the leader in the production of green coffee was 8.9 million tons, followed by Vietnam, Indonesia, Colombia and India and overall record is 150.5 million bags and it was increased in previous years[1]. Currently, coffee has become more trendy in new generation than previous generations, the majority of adolescent caffeine consumers intake amount more than the amount needed it. Coffee contained ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve performance during sleep deprivation[1]. Like every drug, advantages, and disadvantages. Coffee has some positive and negative effects on health, dependents amount of consumption. For example coffee may confer a moderate positive effect of some major diseases, including Parkinson s disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus , certain types of cancers, it may protect people from liver cirrhosis, and it can be used to treat bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity, during therapy[1]. It may help to gain the weight and decreases the incidence of cerebral palsy and cognitive delay[3]. Caffeine also treats apnea of prematurity as a primary treatment, not a prevention. Some studies show that non-decaffeinated coffee over 5 cups per day may have a positive effect on cardiovascular diseases such as coronaryShow MoreRelatedCoffee And Its Effects On Health1472 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction The coffee bean is one of the big sources of caffeine and coffee is the most famous beverage all around the world. Coffee plants are now cultivated in over seventy countries such as Asia, India, and Africa. In 2013/14 Brazil as the leader in the production of green coffee was 8.9 million tons, followed by Vietnam, Indonesia, Colombia and India and overall record is 150.5 million bags and it was increased in previous years. Currently, coffee has become more trendy in new generation thanRead MoreCoffee And Its Effects On Health1366 Words   |  6 Pagesamount needs it, coffee is a big part of their life. the coffee bean is one of the big sources of caffeine and coffee is the most famous beverage all around the world[2]. coffee plants are now cultivated in over seventy countries such as Asia, India, and Africa. Currently, Coffee s become more trendy in new generation than previous generations, it’s totally addicting, also contained ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and t o improve performance during sleep deprivation. Coffee is moderately containedRead MoreThe Health Effects Of Coffee Consumption1181 Words   |  5 PagesThe health effects of coffee consumption have been controversial for many years. My claim is that moderate coffee consumption is beneficial for health. Moderate amount of coffee can possibly prevent people from some disease risks, provide high content of antioxidant for people and improve physical performance as well as brain functions. Too much coffee consumption may have adverse effects on health. Thus, the amount of coffee should be moderate in order to maximize the positive health effects. IntroductionRead MoreThe Effects Of Coffee Drinking Coffee On A Person s Health2327 Words   |  10 PagesCoffee comes in many varieties and is a very complex beverage with several hundred compounds and nutrients, some being beneficial while others are not. There are several benefits that may come from drinking coffee, ranging from better moods to possible cancer and disease protection. However, coffee may also be harmful, causing health problems or possible addiction. Also, the effect coffee has on a person’s health, mood, etc. depends on the variety of the coffee. Additionally, coffee is not recommendedRead MoreLiquid Energy : Examining The Health Effects Of Coffee1817 Words   |  8 PagesEnergy: Examining the Health Effects of Coffee Americans love coffee. People all around the world have enjoyed this wonderful beverage for centuries. From the very strong brews of Cuba, Turkey, and Italy, to the American Lattes and Cafà © Mochas, the love of coffee is pancultural. We as Americans are very enthusiastic in our obsession with this delicious and sometimes addictive drink. According to the Harvard School of Public Health, â€Å"54% of Americans over the age of 18 drink coffee every day,† and â€Å"AmericansRead MoreHealth Benefits And Side Effects On The Consumption Of Coffee2973 Words   |  12 PagesIntroduction The consumption of coffee is an essential staple to start an early morning in the United States and worldwide (Freedman et al. 2012). Like coffee, caffeine is a component that also can be present in energy drinks, tea, and pre-workout supplements. But to be specific, coffee, according to statistics has over 150 million people who drink an average of 3.2 cups of coffee daily, which means that about 400 million cups of coffee every day is consumed. (Patil et al. 2011) For some peopleRead MoreIs Drinking too much Coffee Bad or Good? Essay1114 Words   |  5 PagesAlthough coffee is viewed as a food item, it can be used to understand the rhetoric’s of health, addiction and as a drink. The genus coffea produces berries that are used to obtain coffee. The commercially exploited species are coffea Arabica and coffea robusta. Coffea Arabica is the most used species that is used to extract coffee. This type is found in the highlands of Ethiopia, Sudan and Kenya and produces high quality coffee. The earliest consumption of coffee is believed to have been by theRead MoreCoffee Daily: Windows to the World1571 Words   |  6 Pagesthe world wake up to a cup of coffee but is this harmful or beneficial? Research shows that the pros to coffee, at responsible amounts per day, outweigh the cons or negative effects of coffee and even have the same effects as medicines given over the counter at pharmacy or even prescribed by a pharmacist. Many people just drink coffee without even knowing the location of where coffee began but this can be very crucial to the understanding to finding the benefits of coffee. â€Å"In the Ethiopian highlandsRead MoreCaffeine, Caffeine And Health Benefits Between Coffee And Energy Drinks And How They Each Affect Brain Function1242 Words   |  5 Pagespeople either enjoy to drink a cup of coffee, an energy drink, or sometimes both. People drink these without any knowledge of them other than the fact that they contain caffeine. How much caffeine do they contain though? Are these drinks even considered to be healthy for humans? There are various differences in the nutritional facts, caffeine absorption, and health benefits between coffee and energy drinks and how they each affect brain function. Black coffee is typically composed of caffeine, potassiumRead MoreDifferent Types Of Teas That Have Different Purposes For The Body Essay1446 Words   |  6 Pagesall have drank or tasted coffee and/or tea. Some people love the taste or the effects coffee or tea can have on our bodies. Coffee is very effective on the body, people drink coffee to help them get going every morning. There are several different types of teas that have different purposes for the body. Tea was first discovered when a dried leaf landed in Chinese Emperor Shen Nung’s bowl of water changing the color of it in 2737 B.C. (When was tea invented?, 2016). Coffee was discovered in Ethiopia

Organized Crime and Terrorism - 1000 Words

Treverton et all define crime and terrorism as illegal activities which greatly revolve around economic interests. The document accurately depicts how ‘organized crime seeks money and why terrorism needs it’ . Furthermore, according to the authors, the definitions about crime presented by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), United Nations (UN), and the International Police (INTERPOL) coincide in some terms regarding the essence of organized crime. All of the aforementioned identify key words within their definitions such as groups of individuals working under illegal structures with profitable aims. On the other hand, the article highlights the importance of the effects that globalization and Information Technology (IT) have†¦show more content†¦On the other hand, the authors outline the importance of drug trafficking as the most significant and current source of income for both terrorist and international criminal organizations. Similarly, The Jamestown Foundation cites the example of how profits of narcotrafficking have been used to strengthen international links between terrorist organizations: ‘ETA has been training FARC members in explosives and weapons. In exchange, the FARC compensated the Basque terrorists, using financial revenues obtained through drug trafficking’ . Thus, one could affirm that the market of illegal drugs and narcotics produce enormous revenues which often support criminal organizations, revolutionary groups, and terrorist organizations among many other illegal forms of crime. On the other hand, Traverton et all assert that crimes committed by Islamic terrorists alienate the communities and this is considered as one of their biggest failures; However, it is important to mention that alienation is not a consequence of Islamic groups’ terrorism exclusively. Every terrorist action, independent of its perpetrator, causes the same effect on the public: alienation. In fact, one of the main objectives of any terrorist action is to alienate the community against the government and generate the sensation that the targeted government is incapable of protecting its own citizens . Hence, one could say that, in this case, contrary to what the author state the Islamic terrorists areShow MoreRelatedSimilarities Between Terrorism and Organized Crime:1630 Words   |  7 PagesSimilarities between terrorism and organized crime: Today’s terrorism and organized crime groups are so similar that their differences are starting to blur and the commonalities are becoming clearer. Terrorism and organized crime is a perfect match, that may have different objectives, but they can accomplish their goals through one another. The underground network, tactics they share and utilize to accomplish a task in support of one another, recruiting methods, financial institutions, and theRead MoreDrug Trafficking, Organized Crime, and Terrorism Interactions586 Words   |  2 PagesDrug Trafficking, Organized Crime, and Terrorism Interactions In recent years, the link between organized crime, terrorism, and drug trafficking has become increasingly intertwined. The interactions between these three organizations have facilitated terrorism on a global scale as the activities perpetrated by these groups have demonstrated. These formerly independent endeavors have not only began to collaborate with each other, but discernable trends have emerged due to their collaboration. InRead MoreTheories And Rational Choice Theory1274 Words   |  6 Pageschoice theory. The two types of crimes that were chosen were organized crime, specifically focusing on gangs, and terrorism. Then the crimes will be compared and contrasted. Finally, the developmental theory will be applied to organized crime to explain why and how it happens. The rational choice theory will be applied to terrorism to explain what compels individuals to attempt this form of criminality. Organized Crime (Gangs) The definition of organized crime is â€Å"crime committed by groups engaged inRead MoreControlling Organized Crime1200 Words   |  5 PagesControlling Organize Crime Paper Louis Pierre CJA/384 May 6, 2013 University of phoenix Professor: Glen Winters Controlling Organize Crime Paper Organize crime is a conspiratorial activity involving the coordination of numerous people in the planning and execution of illegal acts or in the pursuit of a legitimate objective by unlawful means, for example, threatening a legitimate business to get stake in it. However, organize crime involves continuous commitment by primary members, althoughRead MoreLaw Enforcement, US Military, and Terrorism923 Words   |  4 PagesSection 4: Law Enforcement, U.S. Military, and Terrorism Law enforcement agencies at the federal level and the U.S. military play a significant role in preventing terrorism on a state, national, and global scale. Former Vice-President Dick Cheney comments, On the ground, the first responders and local police [are] the first line of defense and intelligence, followed by federal law enforcement, with our foreign intelligence and military forces on call (Melber). Through a collaboration of variousRead More The Relationship of Terrorism and Drugs Essay894 Words   |  4 PagesThe Relationship of Terrorism and Drugs Terrorism has many and varied links to the drug trade. Terrorists may use drugs for funding of their cause; may include drugs as part of their cause, as in Peru; or terrorism may be the result of the drug trade, as it is in Columbias Extraditables and Italys mafia. With the many linkages between the two crimes it seems that to crackdown on one you must crackdown on the other. The ties between the two are such that enforcement of one will hurt theRead MoreSecurity and Domestic Terrorism Essay1081 Words   |  5 PagesEDM 501 – Domestic Terrorism -Module 3 – Case: Security and Domestic Anti-Terrorism (Part 1) May 2012 What are the limits of power of the FBI in pursuing surveillance of potential terrorists within and without the U.S.? In your view, is the FBI adequately organized, staffed, and trained to perform the myriad of missions tasked? Based on the readings and your research, what is the status of the USA Patriot Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2011 and resultant action on the key divisiveRead MoreFederal Bureau Of Investigation ( Fbi ) Defines Terrorism1693 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction The federal bureau of investigation (FBI) defines terrorism as the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, and/or any segment thereof. If one makes the argument that BLM is a terrorist group the ideology of the movement must fit within the framework stated above. First, BLM stands for â€Å"Black Lives Matter†. It, in itself is nothing more than a concept about which all else revolves. It is true, theRead MoreGlobal Crime Analysis1134 Words   |  5 PagesGlobal Crimes Analysis University of Phoenix Cynthia Butler CJA/394 April 16, 2012 This paper will identify the various major global crimes and criminal issues that affect national and international criminal justice systems and processes. In addition, there will be a comparison and contrast of the different criminal justice systems and how they have addressed major global crimes and criminal issues. Global crime is an issue that threatens the safety andRead MoreThe United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Is Combating Drugs, Terrorism, and Criminal Activity529 Words   |  3 PagesThe United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is the unit of the United Nations (UN) charged with combating illicit drugs, terrorism, and other criminal activity. It is headquartered in Vienna, Austria, and has twenty-one field offices and a liaison office in New York. The agency has approximately 500 members across the globe who develop and enforce drug control policies that are responsive to their individual needs. The UNODC’s work program consists of three major pillars. The first of these

Child Poverty And Academic Achievement - 1448 Words

Child Poverty and Academic Achievement Francesca Diona University of San Francisco According to the National Center for Children in Poverty, over 16 million children (22%) in the United States live below the federal poverty level, which is $23,550 per year for a family of four. Research has shown that a family requires an income of about twice that amount just to cover basic needs and expenses. Using these statistics, 45% of children in the US live in low-income households. Most parents of low-income children are employed, but unsteady employment accompanied with low wages leave families struggling to make ends meet. The effects of poverty on children are numerous and long lasting, such as impaired learning ability as well as social, behavioral, and emotional difficulties. Childhood poverty can also contribute to poor physical and mental health. Research has shown that poverty is the greatest threat to s child’s well-being, but public policies can make a difference when they are implemented effectively. One of the most obvious and frequently researched consequences of child poverty is low academic achievement. Duncan et al. (1994) concluded that family income and poverty level remain the most powerful determining factors of the cognitive development of children even after many other factors such as family structure and parental education are considered. The same study also found that there was a positive correlation between family incomeShow MoreRelatedRisk Factors Associated With Poverty1541 Words   |  7 Pages Poverty involves a complex array of risk factors that harmfully affects the population in a multitude of ways. The primary risk factors commonly associated with families living in poverty are emotional and social challenges, acute and chronic stressors, cognitive delays, and health related issues (Jensen, 2009). The culmination of risk factors make everyday life in poverty a struggle. Those risk factors are interwoven and comprehensive, often leading to devastatingly adverse effects. Jensen (2009)Read MoreThe Poverty Theory Developed By Lewis1627 Words   |  7 PagesThe poverty theory developed by Lewis (1968) and Payne (2001) argues that the culture of poverty is both an adaptation and reaction of the economically disadvantaged to their marginal position, low socioeconomic status and impartibility in achieving success. According to the poverty theory established by Lewis (1968), there are many traits associated with the culture of poverty. Families living on poverty have a level o f education and are living in inadequate housing conditions. This factor is oftenRead MoreThe Significance Of Child Development In Low Socioeconomic1517 Words   |  7 PagesThe Significance of Child Development in Low Socioeconomic Communities Emma Kennedy Project #1 AIS 1203.027 University of Texas at San Antonio Introduction Poverty creates long term disadvantages for children. Many of these disadvantages include lower academic achievement, home environment stress, and relational issues between parent and child. In our world today, poverty is affecting more children developmentally. It has been accounted as of 2017, that 15 million childrenRead MoreNo Child Left Behind Act1737 Words   |  7 PagesFirst, what is the achievement gap? According to the achievement gap in education refers to systematic variances in the ability to learn between students from majority populations and students from minority populations. The most significant effort made by the federal government to improve the nation s schools and student learning is the 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). The ESEA was largely designed to address the achievement gap in multicultural educationRead MoreEffects Of Poverty On The Health Of A Child Essay1359 Words   |  6 PagesAs of 2015, 14.5 million child ren are living in poverty. What is poverty you ask? Poverty defined by Webster’s Dictionary is the state of being extremely poor. In my opinion, poverty is much more than not having enough money to supply basic needs. Poverty is lack of shelter, lack of food in most cases, being sick and not able to see a doctor. Having very little to no resources in order to acquire the proper education, poverty is one of the major problems among society today. Affecting all ages atRead MorePublic Housing Assistance Programs1214 Words   |  5 Pages In his paper, Olson differentiated between the government’s methods of public housing and delineating the benefits and costs of each. His paper focuses mainly on the heavy fiscal costs of public-based assistance, which he argues will perpetuate poverty (Olson, 2016). Most major research agrees that the current public housing system is in a state of disrepair and in need of reform (Goetz, 2014) (Solomon, 2005) (Utt 1996). Some wish to change the subsidy structure of the public housing projects.Read MoreNo Child Left Behind Act Essay1646 Words   |  7 Pages The No Child Left Behind Act was based on the Elementary Secondary Education Act of 1965. The act was established based on the promise of Thomas Jefferson to create a free public education system in Virginia (Hammond, Kohn, Meier, Sizer Wood, 2004). The act is now reauthorized as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. 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It can alter socioemotional development, cognitive development, and physical health. (Evans, 2013). Parenting practices, neighborhoods, and overall environment play a significant role regarding to the emotional and physical health during development in middle childhood. Disruption with physical and emotional health could potentially cause harm to the child. In this essay, I will explain how poverty affectsRead MorePoverty is a Hidden Epidemic1175 Words   |  5 PagesPoverty Poverty is the state or condition of having little or no money, goods, or means of support. (11) Poverty is a hidden epidemic that is on the rise. Poverty can affect anyone and its consequencest can be serious. Poverty can affect someone academically, socially, and emotionally. The topic of poverty is of interest to me because I live in a neighborhood that is in poverty and I am wondering why it is in poverty and the methods of alleviating it of poverty. In addition, I live in a neighborhood

Freund Free Essays

Creating Deviance Rules: A Macroscopic Model Author(s): Ronald J. Troyer and Gerald E. Markle Source: The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. We will write a custom essay sample on Freund or any similar topic only for you Order Now 23, No. 2 (Spring, 1982), pp. 157-169 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Sociological Society Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/4106327 Accessed: 16/11/2009 09:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp. JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=black. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor. org. Blackwell Publishing and Midwest Sociological Society are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Sociological Quarterly. http://www. jstor. org The SociologicalQuarterly (Spring1982):157-169 23 Deviance Rules: Creating A Macroscopic Model* RonaldJ. Troyer,Drake University GeraldE. Markle,Western MichiganUniversity In this paperwe proposea macrolevel the modelfor analyzing creationof deviance rules. We begin by placingthe phenomenon withinthe contextof the social factist and social definitionist the sociological traditions, identifying insightsand difficulties the socialproblems We rule creation. sugliterature for deviance presents explaining difficulties be resolvedby lacingthe processwithina can gest that the theoretical The consequent dialecticalmodel of deviance framework. sociologyof knowledge is that society is composedof a numberof designation based on the assumption in of definitions deviance generalinterests varying degreesof conflictwithprevailing outcomes previous of This balanceor accommodation contests. becomes representing vulnerable with the introduction increasein strainwhich is a potentialresource or for inte rest a The groupsdesiring new definition. utcomeof the ensuingconflictis seen as dependent the abilityof the combatants employresources the battle. in on to We concludeby identifying advantages model has for studying deviance the the the rulecreation process. of This is how I treat theory: it is somethingto guide our understanding the social world; it helps us throughthe labyrinthof the buzzingconfusion of conflictingideologies, and, most of all, theory liberatesus from dead facts and worn-out myths. Davis 1980:xv) But since those sociologistswho espouse a strong and explicit determinism,and those who practice the techniquesof â€Å"verstehen,† â€Å"empathy,†and â€Å"takingthe actor’spoint of view,† differ upon so very many issues, technical and otherwise, the present suggestions are more likely to be treated as a pollution of the boundarybetween schools of thought than as a pathway to agreement. (Barnes, 1974:83-84) For decades the sociology of devianc e focused on rule violation. This approach produced works on rule violators, described which rules were violated and how they were violated, and, arguably, why they were violated. Largely neglected in this work was the process by which rules were created; that is, the process by which deviant categories and designations were constructed. Recently scholars have begun to focus attention on this issue, resulting in various empirical case studies or rationales for the import of the collective definition process (Nuehring and Markle, 1974; Conrad, 1975; Pfohl, 1977; Spector and Kitsuse, 1977; Levine, 1978; Schneider, 1978; Markle and Troyer, 1979; Conrad and Schneider, 1980. As with many deviance studies, these efforts have not produced an explicit framework relating rule creation to the broader theoretical conceptions of social processes and the structural order. As a remedy, ? 1982 by The Sociological Quarterly. All rights reserved. 0038-0253/82/1300-0157$00. 75 *The authors thank Roland Chilton, Ronald Kramer, Frances McCrea, Joseph W. Schneider, Malcolm Spector, and Mayer Zald for their helpful comments. Ronald J. Troyer’s address is Department of Sociol ogy, Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa 50311. 158 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY Collins has called for a radicaldeparture deviancestudies,statfrom traditional ing that â€Å"thenext step clearlymustbe to abolishthe field of devianceentirely,to and link its materialswith what is knownof generalexplanations stratification of politics† (1975:17). And Davis (1980:5) has observedthat the time has come â€Å"for the sociology of deviance to move into mainstreamtheory–based sociology. † What theoreticalform ought these investigations take? The developments in sociologicaltheoryin the past few decadeshave been focusedaroundtwo dominant perspectives. The nature of these approachescan best be graspedby referringto Ritzer’s (1975) distinctionbetween the social factist and social definitionist paradigms. The social factist is primarilyconcernedwith the cause of social phenomena; thus the questionasked is a why question. By contrast,since the social definitionist more concernedwith process,the researchquestionis a is how question. In studyingdeviance,for example,the social factistshave focused on behaviordescribing extent and natureasking†Whydo thesepeople do it? † its focusedon the process On the otherhand, the social definitionists have primarily Howhavethesepersons as asking by whichpeoplecometo be defined deviant the label? † acquired deviant have and Webelieve the theoretical of that efforts thefactists thedefinitionists been useful. Such work, though clearly the creationand social constructionof of scholars,is necessaryif the study of rule creationis to lead to generalizations wider applicability. Towar dthat end, we reviewsome relevantliterature, develop creation a sociologyof knowledgeframework, then presenta macrodeviance and model which attemptsto bridge the gap between the factist and definitionist erspectives. Literature between PerhapsArmandMauss has best capturedthe essence of the difference the two majortraditionalapproachesto social problemstheory. The essence of the scholarlydisagreement, noted, came down to one grouparguingthat â€Å"sohe cial problems are ‘objective’realities which generate collective behavior and political action†versus the view that â€Å"socialproblemsare essentiallygenerated by collectivebehaviorand politicalprocesses†(1977:602, emphasisin original). The former closely approximatesthe social factist approach,while the latter the represents social definitionist position. Social factist scholarshave tended to explain social problemsas the product of some environmentally condition. This tradition, disharmonious usuallytermed the strain explanation,has often focused on economic conditions (Oberschall, between differentgoals, differentvalues, 1973) but also includes discrepancies values and norms, knowledgeand actions, technologyand values, and so forth (Smelser, 1962: chap. 3). Smelser,for example,indicatesthat â€Å"norm-oriented movements†(definedas attemptsto restore,protect,modify,or createnormsin the name of a generalizedbelief,† 1962:270) often springfrom the following kindsof strain: Sometimes the appearanceof new knowledge initiates a movement to apply this knowledge in order to eradicate a condition previously taken for granted. (1962: 287) CreatingDeviance Rules 159 can betweennormative and standards actualsocialconditions proAny disharmony videthe basisfor a movement whoseobjective is to modifynorms. 1962:289) it Davis (1975) used a strainmodel to explain changesin the collectivedefinition of deviance. Whileseeingdeviancedefinitions productsof powerstruggles as between groups with new rules representing values of those groups able to the win state endorsement their values, Davis suggeststhat â€Å"the diffusionof new of knowledgeis a majorcause of collective searchesfor new normsin the modern world†(1975:53). Although strain h as been a populartheoreticalapproachfor studyingsome social problems(e. g. race riots), few empiricalstudiesof deviancedesignation have followed from this tradition. PerhapsChamblisscame close in the study of the creation of new rules against vagrancy. In his words, â€Å"The vagrancy statutes emerged as a result of changes in other parts of the social structure† (1964:69). Specifically,the strain was the breakdownof the serf system; vagrancy laws were the responseof the rulingclass to protect their interestsand bring the system back to harmony. Zurcheret al. (1977) have also pointed to the crucial role of strainin the emergenceof antipornography crusades. In the communities amongstatus studied,they found that as a resultof inconsistencies variables,the traditionalmiddle class was experiencingthreatsto its life-style. were attemptsto the Consequently, effortsto gain new rulesagainstpornography bolster the legitimacyof their life-style. In other words, in the strain tradition of new definitionsof devianceare seen as responsesto the introduction various kindsof socialchangein society. Insteadof focusingon the causes of social problems,such as strain(objective traditionstressthat collective acconditions), scholarsin the social definitionist tions emergefrominteraction, processes. As Blumerstated: especiallyinterpretive â€Å"social problemslie in and are productsof a process of collective definition† (1971:301). Spector and Kitsuse (1977) pursuedthis theme with their argument that scholarsmust focus on the claims-making the process to understand emergenceof a social problemor definitionof deviance. This processtraditionhas spawneda varietyof empiricalstudies,often focusdefinitionsof deviance. The ing on the creationof criminaland health-related best known of these studies is Becker’s (1963) analysisof the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Arguingthat there was no majorincreasein the actualuse of the drug, which would be the focus of a strain explanation,Becker attributesthe new rule to the activitiesof a â€Å"moralentrepreneur. † (For other interpretations, see Dickson, 1968; Galliherand Walker, 1977, 1978. ) Other studies have argued that juvenile courts were not created as a responseto increasesin delinquency,as the strainmodel would predict,but ratheras part of a moralcrusade of (Platt, 1969) or as the productof organizational conflictbetweensupporters the police and probationdepartments (Hagan and Leon, 1977). In two studies of sex offensedefinitions,Rose (1977) and Roby (1969) also emphasizeprocessualexplanations. Roby examinedchanges in the New York State penal law on prostitution and found that the relative power of numerous interest groups and individuals determined the final version of the act. Similarly, Rose related the rise of the â€Å"rape problem† to the ideology and organizations generated by the women’s liberation movement. 160 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY of The status politics interpretation the temperancemovementby Gusfield in (1963, 1967) representsanotherone of the majorprocessualapproaches the literature. Basically,Gusfieldsuggeststhat the attemptsto have a behaviordesignated as deviantare often symbolicbattles†betweenopposedsystemsof moralities, culturesand stylesof life† (1963:173). In otherwords,it is not the behavior per se or social conditionswhich cause the attemptto label the behavioras deviant. Instead the designationof deviance must be seen as a productof status of for conflict,the competition the officialassignment honorand prestigethrough of legitimation groupnorms. The creationof new health-related of designations deviancehas been reviewed Conrad and Schneider(1980). These authorshave set forth a â€Å"sequential by of model† and â€Å"grounded on generalizations† the medicalization deviance. Following Spectorand Kitsuse,they emphasizethe import,and not the accuracy,of medicalclaims-making, view claims as strategicdevices, and view medicalization which reflectpolitics and demedicalization devianceas â€Å"cyclicalphenomena† of of the day. In the most recent processualanalysis,Schursuggeststhat deviancemust be seen as a politicalphenomenon. Arguingthat there are at least two sides in any stigmacontest, Schursuggeststhat what is really at stake in deviancedefinitions is the power of the respectivegroups. Since â€Å"power,of any sort, is more like a processthan an object† (1980:8), â€Å"deviancedefiningis not a static event but a continuousand changingprocess†(1980:66). In summary,the literaturereviewed above suggests two models for understandingthe collectivedefinitionof deviance. The process approacharguesthat collectivedefinitionsare the productof interestgroupdynamics. By contrastthe are is for, strainexplanation that societaldisjunctions responsible or at least play a majorrole in, the emergence new definitions. of BeyondDichotomousModels During the past decade, a numberof scholarshave attemptedto move beyond the raditionalstrainor processmodels. For example,Mauss (1975; Maussand of Wolfe, 1977) arguesthat new social problemsor new definitions devianceare best understoodas productsof social movementsled by interestgroups. In this view, social arrangements permit collective behaviorwhich usually focuses on structural strainsbroughtaboutby social change. Thoughmanys trainsare present in society, problem definitionis the product of interest groups organizing social movementswhich push for acceptanceof their definitionof reality. Resource mobilizationtheory is another attemptto move beyond the strain and process models. This framework begins with the assumptionthat society is composedof competinggroups (economic, status, racial,etc. ). Strainis always present,since thereis conflictamonggroupsover whichvalues,norms,economic and arrangements, so forth are to prevailin the society. Group conflictand the of social movementsare analyzedin terms of the abilityof the colemergence lectivities to create and mobilize resources (Oberschall, 1973). A dynamic element is introduced into the analysis: authorities as well as challengers possess resources; deployment by one side requires some kind of response (mobilization of additional resources) from the other side, lest the cause be defaulted. CreatingDeviance Rules 161 Marxistapproaches have also triedto move beyondstrainand processmodels. of Initially Marxist/conflict interpretations new rules defining deviance suggested that they were â€Å"firstand foremosta reflectionof the interestsof the governingclass† (Chambliss,1974:37). In this view â€Å"thestate and legal systemare seen as instruments which can be manipulated,almost at will, by the capitalist class† (Beirne, 1979:379), an approachillustratedby Platt’s (1974) reinterpretation of the establishmentof the juvenile court as a conscious effort by SomeMarxcapitaliststo preserveexistingpoliticaland economicarrangements. ists have assigneda more ambiguous role to the state (Block, 1978), suggesting that it exercises a â€Å"relativeautonomy†in its relationship the capitalistclass to the enactmentof legislationis not alwaysin (Beirne, 1979:379). Consequently, the objectiveinterestsof the capitalistclass, â€Å"but each case must be examined from and empirically on its own merits†(Beirne, 1979:380). Whatis important, this position,is that all of this occurswithinthe boundaries providedby the prevailing structuralrelations. Lauderdaleand Inveraritycriticizedthe early conflict approachesfor inadequately examiningthe politicalprocessunderlyingthe creationof deviance. Arguingthat â€Å"devianceis socially definedand as such is and changedthroughpoliticalprocesses†(1980a:36), they created,maintained, ask underwhat conditionsa form of actioncomes to be definedas deviant(Lauderdale, 1980:v). Noting previousstudiesare characterized a â€Å"preoccupation by with subjectiveinterestsand lack of attentionto measuringobjectiveinterests† (1980b:229), they call for attentionto objectiveconditionsunderlyingthe deviance definitionprocess. These efforts are advancesover analyses which attributenew definitionsof devianceto social psychological processesor to the activitiesof individuals(moral entrepreneurs). Here, at least, an effortis made to locate the deviancewithin the larger social context. However, several issues remainunresolved. First, although recent effortshave attemptedto find a role for objectiveconditions,the remainsunclear. At role of strainin the generation new deviancedesignations of one group of scholars,the social definitionists, suggestobjectivecondipresent tions are largely irrelevant,while others (especially Lauderdaleand Inverarity, to 1980b) are callingfor moreattention objectivefactors. A second majorunresolvedproblemis that none of the collectivedefinitionof deviance approachesexplains why specific behaviorsare selected for deviance silent on this issue. Finally, In categorization. fact, the literatureis remarkably the approachesdiscussedabove do not yet explainwhy some deviancecreation effortsare unsuccessful. is in this contextthat we believe that resourcemobiliIt zation theory could prove valuable in the study of rule creationand deviance designation. Not only does it point toward relevantvariablesfor study, it also to providesan empiricalframework assess previousmovementsand predictthe successor failureof ongoingmovements. Any model or theory of deviance creation must addressthese issues. More into a more genspecifically,a way must be found to subsumethese differences eral model rendering theoreticalissues amenableto empiricalevaluation. Toward a Sociology of Knowledge Given its theoretical import, it seems to us that there have been inexplicably few 162 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY studiesof rule creation. Marxists,subsuming issue withinthe superstructure, the have focusedon the creationof laws whichmaintainruling-class privilege. Strain scholarstreat new rules as responsesto changedsocial conditions(new knowledge, Davis, 1975). Only process scholars have directly addressedthe issue, viewing collective definitionsof devianceas â€Å"emergent productsof an interpretive process† (Hawkins and Tiedman, 1975:340), but studies in this tradition have not produceda rigoroustheoreticalexplanation. Instead, isolated studies have been characterized descriptiveand idiosyncratic detail withoutconnecby or tion to socialstructure generalsocialprocesses. In theirstudyof the medicalization deviance,Conradand Schneider(1980) of a solutionto the interactionist the pose impasse. Although labeling-interactionist of perspectivepresentsus with the questionsto ask concerningthe development deviancedesignations,† they note (1980:20), â€Å"it is a sociologyof knowledgeapproachthat is necessaryto answerthem. â€Å"We thinkof the sociologyof knowledge knowlas a study of the materialbasis of social ideas, categories,designations, and so forth. From this frameworkthe dependentvariablechanges: no edge, longer do we studyth e deviantactor;ratherwe attemptto locate historicallythe origins and the social forces which supportedand opposed the definitionof the deviant category. As Friedsonhas stated, the analysisshouldnot focus on â€Å"the etiology of some state so much as the etiology of the meaningof a state. Thus it asks questionslike: How does a state come to be considereddeviant? How does it come to be considered kindof devianceratherthan another? † one (1970: 215-16). deviant To developtheirknowledgeapproach, Conradand Schneider interpret behaviorsas social constructionsof reality. Adopting Berger and Luckmann’s as (1966) scheme,they view realityconstruction a social processof threestages: The processbegins with the and internalization. xternalization, objectification, of construction a culturalproductor definition a personor collectionof perby becomespartof the generallyacceptedbody sons, continuesas the new definition of knowledge,and concludesas the individualsin publictake the new definition for grantedas partof theirworldview. We applaudConradand Schneider’s explicit sociologyof knowledgeand find their social constructionist approachinsightful. Their analysisof the historical contribution a dimensionsof the medicalization deviancerepresents significant of in by placingdeviancedesignations the broadersocial context. At the sametime, we are uncomfortable with the apparentabsenceof a theoreticalmodel pointing to a more explicit method of data analysis. History is all aroundus; we need the guidanceto separate datafromthe noise. between In his Ideology and Utopia (1936), Karl Mannheimdistinguishes two types of sociologyof knowledge:†on the one hand a theoryand on the other hand an historical-sociological methodof research†(p. 266). As a theorywith the sociology of knowledgehas been pursuedvigepistemologicalimplications, orously. Its methodologicalimplicationshave, however, remainedunderdevelhimselflargelyignoredthe methodological aspectsof knowledge oped. Mannheim theory, though he did write that â€Å"the most important task of the sociology of knowledge at present is to demonstrate its capacity in actual research in the historical-sociological realm† (p. 306). The methodological implications of Mannheim’s work have been pursued most CreatingDeviance Rules 163 rigorouslyby David Bloor in his 1976 book Knowledgeand Social Imagery. Bloor contendsthat our concernshouldbe phenomenological; method,howour scientific. Thesociologistis concernedwith knowlever, ought to be rigorously edge,† he writes, â€Å"purelyas a naturalphenomenon†¦ instead of definingit as true or false belief, knowledgefor the sociologist is whatevermen take to be knowledge†(p. 2). Given that knowledgeis relativeand historicallyunstable, Bloor’s task is to elucidatethe materialbasis of its variation. To accomplishthis in task, he proposesa methodwhich he calls the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge,to wit, that our analysisought to be causal, impartial,and symmetrical. While sociologists would not want to argue that social factors are the sole cause of belief, they should focus on how social conditionsproduceand reflect belief. In demandingan approachwhich is â€Å"impartial with respectto truthand success or failure†(p. 5), Bloor is not advofalsity, rationalityor irrationality, catinga value neutralposition. The task is not to crownwinnersor punishlosers but to understandboth sides. In that sense, Bloor’s sociology is agnostic. Ultito even irrelevant, mate truth,in any sense of the phrase,is seen as peripheral, the analysis. Finally the strong programdemandsa symmetrical analysis. Too often scholarshave attempted analyzedeviantand normalbeliefs from differto ent stances, the former needing special explanation,while the latter–seen as logical, rational,or truthful-are seen to need no specialexplanation. We are interestedin using the sociology of knowledgeas a methodological to guide, as a way of using historicalmaterials build rigorousmodels. In a sense, then, we use Mannheimand Bloor to build a theoreticalmethod for empirical methods,especiallyas it appliesto socialhistory, study. The notion of theoretical has been developedby Stinchcombe(1978; see also Graff, 1980). Good social theory, he asserts,must be groundedin historicaldata. â€Å"Peopledo much better the theory,†he argues,†wheninterpreting historicalsequencethanthey do when they set out to do ‘theory'† (p. 17) and â€Å"thatthe centraloperationfor building theories of history is seeking causally significantanalogiesbetween instances† of Thuswe aremost interested the methodological in implications the sociology of knowledge:as a way of pointingtowardvariables,as a way of using history, as a way-in short-of structuring analysis. Suchan analyticstrategy,as a macroand rigorousversionof groundedtheory,ought to allow us to relateprescopic vious theoriesof devianceand our data in an iterativesort of way and, thus, to build and evaluatea model of how deviantcategoriesare designated. A DialecticalModelof DevianceDesignation In attemptingto addressthe theoreticaland methodologicalissues raised, we propose a dialecticalmodel of deviance designation. The model, presentedin to however,it attempts transcend Figure1, is influenced resourcemobilization; by arany single theory. We begin with the assumptionthat within the structural is composedof a numberof generalinterestsin varying rangements, everysociety degreesof conflict. Such groupsmay be of varyingnature:with inclusiveor exin clusive membership, broad or narrowfocus. Their concernwith the definition (p. 7). Figure 1. A DialecticalModel of DevianceDefiniti General vested other interests Definition i – +- Strain General vested other interests S/ Specific interests CreatingDeviance Rules 165 question,however,is either peripheral,quiescent,or not effectivein the public arena. The initial or prevailingdefinitionof a behavioras acceptableor unacceptable representsthe outcome of previousspecific interestgroup conflict;in other words, the balanceof the resourcesthe two sides were able to mobilize. or This balance or accommodation becomes vulnerablewith the introduction increase of strain. This developmentprovides existing general interest groups with a new resourceand opportunity claims-making. for Specificinterestgroups towardthe specific (includingthe state) form,or mobilize,or becomeredirected issue in question. Faced with a challenge to their interests,groups benefiting from the prevailingdefinitionrespondby marshaling their own resources. The battle of these groups to maintainor change a rule is joined, the outcome dependingon the balance of the mobilizedresources. To speak of the â€Å"balanceof mobilized resources†should not be seen as merely suggestinga simplisticaccountingbalance. Of coursethe matteris muchmore complex. For example,the efficientemployment resources–usingresourcesin an arenawherethey have of maximal impact-may be just as importantas quantity. The net result is that over a periodof time, at time2,the originaldefinitionsurvivesor a new designation takesits place. for In explicatingthe model, we make the following arguments its utility in collectivedefinition deviance: of examining issues raisedin the 1. The model addressesor handlesmanyof the theoretical literature. For example, existing sociological explanations assign central importance to, or ignore, the role of strain. The dialectical model directs the scholar’sattentionto the role of strainbut does not preclude,in fact demands, examinationof other social processes. In addition,by viewing the state as an interestedparty, albeit a group with unique resources,it is possibleto examine official actions without assumingthe existence of an all powerfulmonolithical the definitional outcomes. Furthermore, modelpermitsanalysis entitydetermining and explanationof outcomeswhereneitherside achievestotal victory. in 2. The dialecticalmodel is consistentwith the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge. As Bloor (1976) has requested,this modelis causal,impartial, and symmetrical. Figure 1 is time ordered;that is, variablesappearin causal sequence with one another. Moreoverthese sequences are made explicit, thus data analysis. The model thus allowsfor attemptsat statisticalmodelfacilitating of processvariablesby techniquesdevelopedfrom social factisttraditions. ing The model treats deviance rule creationsas naturalphenomena. Whethera rule is good or bad is irrelevant our analysis. RecallingGusfield’sstudyof the to temperancemovement,the validityof analysiswas independentof truthclaims about alcohol. Whetherthe drug is actuallyan aphrodisiac,a depressant,or a tool of the devil was essentiallyirrelevantto his conclusions. Taking such an it agnosticpositionhas methodological implications: allowsfor the formalmodelvariables. Moreover,Bloor’slast dictum-that analysis ing of phenomenological be symmetrical–hasobvious implicationsfor the dialecticalmodel. Note that interestsfor or againstany definitionare handledin the same way, and have the same causal input into the model. 166 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY 3. The model is dialectical. The theoryis timelessand has no end stage. Figure 1 shows only one referenceframe. But upon acceptanceof â€Å"Definition2,† general vested or other interestsare alreadyin place, advocatingfor or againsta new definition. Though the theory is sequential,in the sense that it goes forwardin remainuntime, the units of time are not specified. Some deviancedesignations for long periods of time, others move more rapidlythroughstages of changed and vindication. Conradand Schneider,thinkingalong the same stigmatization of and demedicalization deviance the lines, have conceptualized medicalization as â€Å"cyclical†(1980:271). We preferto use the termdialectical,in that it leaves ratherthan suggestinga rethe directionof the next redefinition problematic as turnto an originalpoint. nor4. Deviance and normalcyare not distinctcategories. We conceptualize coordinatesystem. As a prescribed as a point in a multidimensional guide malcy for conduct, a rule designatesthe limits of space aroundthe point in which a behavioris seen as deviant. behavioris viewed as normal. Outsidethis boundary, Now we can justify using the terms â€Å"rulecreation†and â€Å"deviancedesignation† more or less synonymously. The formerrefersto the boundaryitself, whichmay be thick or fuzzy; the latter refers to the space outside the boundary. Any behavioralboundary,in our view, is subject to cultural,temporal,or situational between factorswhich continuously defineit, or redefineit. Thus is the boundary deviancy and normalcycontinuouslydrawnand redrawn,and a behavioralresituation,but ratherby definitionoccursnot by quantumleaps, as an â€Å"either-or† or pulled througha system of space. In the dialecticalmodel the being pushed as pushesor pulls aremanifested strainor process. and analyticintentions 5. The model is macroscopic. Our conceptualization the collectivelevel. We do not directlyconsider,for example,the are clearly at motivationsof an individualactor or leader. For two reasonswe down-playthe importof, or perhapseven ignore,such questionsas: Did leaderX makedecision or Y sincerelyor cynically? Is he or she a moralentrepreneur a typical (but not concernedsuburbanite? First,we doubt,in social factistlanguage, authoritarian) that such variablesexplainvery much variancein deviancedesignation. The individual,qua individual,role in collective, historicprocessesis always limited. To Our second reasonis methodological: the extentthat psychologicalvariables are important,how are they to be measuredor assessed? For historicalstudies, motivationseems particularly Secondarysources,as well as various problematic. kinds of documents,seem suspecthere. Even in contemporary settings,people’s of their own or others’motivationsare not trustworthy, especiallygiven reports or the vested or strategicinterestswhich can be served by lying, exaggerating, selectivelyforgetting. Rather,we focus on such variablesas strainand resources over time. and which can be operationalized measuredcomparably 6. The dialecticalmodel uses history. The model invites, perhapseven demands, a given rule to be placed in historical context. Moreover the data needed to test the model are historical, preferably in time series, data. The model is shaped by these data and is thus grounded and inductive as Conrad and Schnei- CreatingDeviance Rules 167 der (1980:265) have suggested. In that sense the dialecticalmodel is meant to evaluate,as much as formallytest, historicalsequencesof data. 7. The model is conflictoriented,though not necessarilyMarxist. Many deviance designations,particularlythose formalizedas laws, are amenableto a Marxist analysis consistentwith the model. Large sums of money or other resources are often used by ruling elites for maintenanceof deviance definitions do or, less often, change. However,some deviancedefinitions not seem to fit the Marxistmodel (see Markle and Troyer, 1979, or Hagan and Leon, 1977, for two such case studies). In the dialecticalmodel, vested or other interests(religious, ethnic, sex, status,etc. ) can militatefor, and indeedbe successfulat, creat(uneming new definitionsof deviance. Similarlystrainmightbe substructural strain ployment,new technology,etc. ), but the model allows for superstructural (e. g. , new knowledge). Using the DialecticalModel As an inductivetheory,the true test of the dialecticalmodel is its utility. Let us and suggesta few ways, then, how the model mightbe operationalized used. We in begin with the concept of strain,which can be operationalized severalways. In our own researchon cigarettesmoking(Markleand Troyer,1979) and estrolegen replacements(McCrea and Markle, 1980), strainwas the appearance, or dissemination new knowledge; strainin our researchon Laetrile of gitimation, (Markle and Petersen, 1980) was, among other factors, an increasedconcern over cancer. As new health-related knowledgeclaims, strain can be measured with variousbibliometric techniques. A simple content analysisof relevantarticles, over a period of years, from Index Medicus can be used to chart such knowledgeclaims. The perceivedlegitimacyof such claims can be assessedby the professionalprestige of the author or journal. Finally, the entry of such knowledgeclaims into the public arena can be measuredusing the New York Times Index, which Jenkins and Perrow (1977) found highly effective,or by one of severalnewspaperdata banks (e. g. , Newsbank)now in existence. After looking at strain,it is easy enoughto identifyspecificinterestsinvolved in redefinition. Such organizations groups will have appearedas recipients, or sponsors,aggrievedparties,etc. , in news accountsor scholarlycitation. The resources of these groups can be measuredin severalways. The Encyclopediaof Associations, updated almost yearly, lists purportedmembershipsand other for simple demographics manysuchgroups. Moreover,most interestgroupshave which are usuallyeasy to obtain, often at literatureor even regularpublications no cost. When interests are corporate,much informationon resourcescan be gleaned from annual reports or, with somewhatmore effort, from regulatory In agenciessuch as the Securitiesand ExchangeCommission. ase studieswhere is an interestedparty, vast amounts of official statistics may be government available (see, e. g. , Markle and Troyer, 1979). Moreover,the researchercan use the Freedomof Information Act to obtain a deep windowinto government actions and resourcesin variousdeviancedesignations. Throughpublic records and other availabledata, every conce pt in the dialecticalmodel can be operationalized. Indeed,to measureresourcesin comparable ways, we have suggested of the development a researchprotocol (Markleand Petersen,1981). 168 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY A Final Word iancearecreated changed, beenneglected socialtheory research. and or in has We believethat neglectcomes from theoretical The misdirection. dialectical thesedifficulties. to model,whichis knowledge based,is ourattempt ameliorate Becauseit attempts integrate traditional the theoryinvites to two approaches, both philosophical- empirical-based and criticisms. Thoughwe welcomethe we The in interested thelatter. realtestof thedialectical former, areparticularly modelis whether works. it Andwhether not it workscan onlybe judged or by it holdingit up to the lightof, and adjudicating with,historicaland contemporary A crucialelementof social change and conflict,why and how definitionsof de- research. REFERENCES Barnes, Barry. 1974. ScientificKnowledgeand SociologicalTheory. London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul. 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